Our Changing Menu

California grows about 80% of the world’s almonds, about 1.1 million tons/yr. ^[1] Because the winter chilling (dormant) period has begun to shorten as the climate warms, some experts predict that by 2030, almond yields will decrease by 10%. One solution is to switch to varieties that tolerate warmer winters.^[2] Almonds also need a lot of water and with the doubling of acreage almonds are becoming California’s most extensive irrigated crop.^[3] Fortunately, most of the state’s almond farmers have adopted precision irrigation technology, watering roots instead of entire orchards.^[4] If multi-year droughts recur and the snowpack in the Sierra Nevadas continues to dwindle in the coming decades, conserving water will be even more critical.

References

^[1] Foreign Agricultural Service, USDA, “Tree Nuts: World Markets and Trade,” October 2018, https://www.fas.usda.gov/commodities/tree-nuts.

^[2] David B. Lobell and Christopher B. Field, “California Perennial Crops in a Changing Climate,” Climatic Change; Dordrecht 109 (December 2011): https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0303-6.

^[3] Julian Fulton, Michael Norton, and Fraser Shilling, “Water-Indexed Benefits and Impacts of California Almonds,” Ecological Indicators 96 (January 1, 2019): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.12.063

^[4] Daniel Beaulieu, “Growing Almonds with Less Water: Is It Possible?” October 17, 2018, https://www.kqed.org/science/1933028/growing-almonds-with-little-water-is-it-possible.

Climate change is making oceans warmer, more acidic, and lowering the oxygen content. On the West Coast of the US, abalone are increasingly vulnerable to these changes. The white abalone has been endangered since 2001, and currently, there are so few that it makes it difficult to find others of their species to reproduce. Breeders are currently working to find traits that will make the species more resilient and reintroduce them to the ocean.^[1]

References

^[1] “Will climate change ruin the white abalone’s last chance at survival?” September 17, 2017, https://marinescience.ucdavis.edu/news/will-climate-change-ruin-white-abalones-last-chance-survival.

In March 2016, Jalisco, Mexico, the source of 95% of the world’s agave, was hit by a sudden snowfall killing millions of plants. The loss rippled through the market, causing a sevenfold increase in price. Scientists are developing more productive varieties to ensure a continuous supply, despite a changing climate.^[1]

References

^[1]“Mexican Scientists Adapt Agave Production in Response to Climate Change,” accessed March 22, 2019 https://eltecolote.org/content/en/mexican-scientists-adapt-agave-production-in-response-to-climate-change/.

Açaí palm, valued for its fruit and high quality hearts of palm, is resilient to climate change, especially drought conditions. Research suggests that it can survive up to 61 days without water.^[1]

References

^[1]“How is climate change affecting nut and berry harvests in the Bolivian Amazon?” https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/fall-2018/articles/how-is-climate-change-affecting-nut-and-berry-harvests-in-the-bolivian-amazon.

References

^[1] David M. Checkley, Rebecca G. Asch, and Ryan R. Rykaczewski, “Climate, Anchovy, and Sardine,” Annual Review of Marine Science 9, no. 1 (2017): https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-122414-033819.

Apples in recent years have been wiped out in parts of the US by false springs.^[1] Hail damage, which can render a crop unmarketable is expected to increase in some regions of the US in coming decades.^[2] Further, hotter temperatures causes sunburn on the fruit’s skin, which reduces the quality, and thus the economic value of the crop.^[3]

References

^[1] David W. Wolfe et al., “Unique Challenges and Opportunities for Northeastern US Crop Production in a Changing Climate,” https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2109-7.

^[2] Julian C. Brimelow, William R. Burrows, and John M. Hanesiak, “The Changing Hail Threat over North America in Response to Anthropogenic Climate Change,” Nature Climate Change 7, no. 7 (July 2017):https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3321.

^[3] Severson, K. (2019, May 1). From Apples to Popcorn, Climate Change Is Altering the Foods America Grows. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/30/dining/farming-climate-change.html.

Like most fruit, yields of apricots will decline as winters warm. In California, which produces about half of all apricots consumed in the US, only 23 – 46% of the Central Valley will be suitable for production towards the end of the century because of warmer winters.^[1] In Turkey, one of the world’s largest producers, climate change is adversely impacting yields, increased fungal diseases and reduced fruit quality.^[2]

References:

^[1]Tapan B. Pathak et al., “Climate Change Trends and Impacts on California Agriculture: A Detailed Review,” Agronomy 8, no. 3 (March 2018): 25, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8030025

^[2] Güngör Karakaş and Hasan Doğan, “The Effect of Climate Change on Apricot Yield: A Case of Malatya Province,” 2018, 469–79.

Most artichokes are grown in the Mediterranean region, with Italy being the largest producing country in the world.^[1] Heat waves are increasing in intensity and length in the region and artichokes are especially susceptible to heat stress, which causes the flowering head of the plant to shrivel along with the delectable edible part. Inadequate irrigation can also stress the crop. Misted irrigation methods that cooled the plant canopy increased the number of marketable heads by 60% and reduced the amount of irrigation water needed compared to conventional practices.^[2]

References:

^[1] “The Top 10 Producers Of Artichokes In The World,” WorldAtlas, September 4, 2018, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-10-producers-of-artichokes-in-the-world.html.

^[2] Paola A. Deligios et al., “Climate Change Adaptation and Water Saving by Innovative Irrigation Management Applied on Open Field Globe Artichoke,” Science of The Total Environment 649 (February 1, 2019): 461–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.349.

A staple in salads, Arugula is a nutritionally valuable, Mediterranean native packed with vitamins. It can be served raw or cooked depending on the dish and its use.^[1] In the US, most is grown in California and Arizona. Like other leafy greens, arugula germination, growth, and survivability are decreased at high temperatures, although variation exists between varieties. High temperatures do however have positive effects on plant nutrients and flavor, but again this varies by variety.^[2] Breeding for more climate change resilient varieties is a priority.

References:

^[1] “Arugula | Herb,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed June 21, 2021, https://www.britannica.com/plant/arugula.

^[2] Jake Jasper, Carol Wagstaff, and Luke Bell, “Growth Temperature Influences Postharvest Glucosinolate Concentrations and Hydrolysis Product Formation in First and Second Cuts of Rocket Salad,” Postharvest Biology and Technology 163 (May 2020): 111157, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2020.111157.

Asparagus is an increasingly popular fresh vegetable in the US, rich in iron, fiber and vitamins A and C. China is the world’s largest producer of asparagus, followed by Peru and Mexico.^[1] In the US, Michigan, California and Washington lead asparagus production,^[2] but most asparagus consumed in the US is imported from Mexico, Peru or Chile.^[3]

A perennial crop native to temperate regions, asparagus thrives where cooler seasons provide plants with a dormant period.^[4] Without a “winter chill,” asparagus spears are smaller and appear later.^[5] Increased temperatures can also cause color changes, malformation, and unwanted fibers in asparagus spears.^[6]  Asparagus is traditionally a rainfed crop, so variable rainfall leaves the crop vulnerable to drought (with an increasing demand for irrigation^[7]) or to rot and fungal disease.

In 2023, the Peruvian asparagus industry was disrupted by heavy rains and temperature increases associated with El Nino, which led to higher prices in the US.^[8]

References

^[1] “Global Leading Asparagus Producing Countries 2023,” Statista, accessed May 26, 2025, https://www.statista.com/statistics/279556/global-top-asparagus-producing-countries/.

^[2] “U.S. Asparagus Production by State 2023,” Statista, accessed May 26, 2025, https://www.statista.com/statistics/192935/us-asparagus-production-by-state/.

^[3] “Asparagus,” Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, accessed May 26, 2025, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/asparagus.

^[4] “Agrownet Asparagus Cultivation | Understanding Asparagus Climate Requirements for Successful Asparagus Cultivation,” accessed May 26, 2025, https://www.agrownet.com/contents/en-us/d340592_Asparagus_Climate_requirements.html.

^[5] Mehdi B. Bisbis, Nazim S. Gruda, and Michael M. Blanke, “Securing Horticulture in a Changing Climate—A Mini Review,” Horticulturae 5, no. 3 (September 2019): 56, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae5030056.

^[6] Miltiadis Christopoulos and Georgia Ouzounidou, “Climate Change Effects on the Perceived and Nutritional Quality of Fruit and Vegetables,” Journal of Innovation Economics & Management 34, no. 1 (February 4, 2021): 79–99. https://shs.cairn.info/revue-journal-of-innovation-economics-2021-1-page-79.

^[7] “The Major Challenges of Climate Change,” Asparagus World (blog), accessed May 26, 2025, https://www.asparagusworld.com/news/the-major-challenges-of-climate-change/.

^[8] “Peruvian Asparagus Industry Hit by Bad Weather.,” ProducePay (blog), accessed May 26, 2025, https://producepay.com/resources/peruvian-asparagus-industry-hit-by-bad-weather-2/.

Most avocados consumed in the US come from California, but to meet demand another $2.6 billion worth are imported from Mexico.^[1] US growers must cope not only with droughts in the west but also with water-logging storms and hurricanes in the southeast. California avocado yields could decrease about 40% by 2060 (compared to average yields from 2000-2003) due to climate change, unless growers are able to adapt their production practices.^[2]

References

^[1] “Avocados | Agricultural Marketing Resource Center,” accessed January 28, 2021, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/avocados.

^[2] Tapan Pathak et al., “Climate Change Trends and Impacts on California Agriculture: A Detailed Review,” Agronomy 8, no. 3 (February 26, 2018): https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8030025.

The banana is the world’s most popular fruit, and is a staple food across Asia, Africa and Latin America, where the crop represents a significant portion of daily caloric intake. The world’s largest producers are India, China, Philippines, Brazil and Equador.^[1] Hawaii is the number one banana producer in the US.

Although scientists have reported a general increase in banana yields globally since 1961 because of climate change, models suggest these gains could be lost by 2050.^[2] In fact, increased banana production may have contributed to the spread of black leaf fungus, a disease affecting bananas, which has been exacerbated by climate change in Latin America.^[3] In addition, bananas are sensitive to excesses of temperature and precipitation, and to storms that can damage plants themselves.^[4] As a result, banana production faces threats related to climate change, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean.

References:

^[1] “EST: Banana Facts,” FAO Markets and Trade, accessed May 13, 2025, https://www.fao.org/economic/est/est-commodities/oilcrops/bananas/bananafacts/en/.

^[2] Varun Varma and Daniel P. Bebber, “Climate Change Impacts on Banana Yields around the World,” Nature Climate Change 9, no. 10 (October 2019): 752–57, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0559-9.

^[3] Daniel P. Bebber, “Climate Change Effects on Black Sigatoka Disease of Banana,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374, no. 1775 (May 6, 2019): 20180269, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0269.

^[4] Nina Lakhani, “Climate Crisis Threatens the Banana, the World’s Most Popular Fruit, Research Shows,” The Guardian, May 12, 2025, sec. Environment, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/may/12/climate-crisis-threatens-the-banana-the-worlds-most-popular-fruit-research-shows.

Barley is the fourth most important grain globally.^[1] It is used in breads, soups and stews, but its greatest significance for human consumption is in producing malt, a component of both whiskey and beer.^[2]

A cool-season crop, barley is grown primarily in Russia, Australia, France, Germany and Canada. In the US — the world’s 12th largest producer — barley cultivation is focused in Idaho, North Dakota, and Montana.^[3]

Barley depends on adequate rainfall during key phases of the growing season, and optimal temperatures for cultivating the crop range from 15-20 degrees Celsius (59-68 degrees F). Thus, rising temperatures and declining soil moisture can lead to decreased yields.^[4] For example, in 2024, heat stress led to a 7% decline in Canada’s production of barley compared to the 10-year average.^[5] Barley also serves as a rotational crop that contributes to soil quality and biodiversity.

References

[1] “Barley | Description, Nutrition, Uses, and Facts,” in Encyclopedia Britannica, Mar. 19, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/plant/barley-cereal.

[2] “Barley Profile,” Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Feb. 2022, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/barley-profile.

[3] “Barley Production by Country 2025,” World Population Review., accessed Apr. 8, 2025, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/barley-production-by-country.

[4] “Barley: Climate Change Threats to Barley Yield,” Heimdal Satellite Technologies (HSAT)., accessed Apr. 8, 2025, https://hsat.space/climate-change-and-barley-yield-understanding-the-threats/.

[5] McDonald, Jean-Paul, “Challenging Growing Conditions for Barley Lead to Declines in 2024,” Farms.Com., Jan. 2, 2025, https://m.farms.com/ag-industry-news/challenging-growing-conditions-for-barley-lead-to-declines-in-2024-665.aspx.

Basil is a culinary herb and is used as fresh leaves or dried. It does best in hot and dry conditions and its many varieties are grown worldwide, sometimes under glass. Scientists have found some varieties more tolerant to water stress than others. Water stress decreases basil’s essential oil content and reduces the weight of dry herbs produced.^[1] Under stress, basil plants produce more antioxidants and flavonoids, but less total sugar. ^[2]

References

^[1] Iakovos Kalamartzis et al., “Effect of Water Stress on the Physiological Characteristics of Five Basil (Ocimum Basilicum L.) Cultivars,” Agronomy-Basel 10, no. 7 (July 2020): 1029, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10071029.

^[2] Al-Huqail et al., “Effects of Climate Temperature and Water Stress on Plant Growth and Accumulation of Antioxidant Compounds in Sweet Basil (Ocimum Basilicum L.) Leafy Vegetable,” Scientifica 2020 (February 27, 2020): 3808909, https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3808909.

Includes: green beans, haricots verts, wax beans, pinto beans, navy beans, black beans, kidney beans, cannellini beans

The common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, is native to South and Central America, and its varieties are consumed worldwide as an edible pod or as a seed.^[1] It is an important source of plant-based protein and is rich in vitamins, minerals, and fiber.^[2]

Asia leads production of the common bean, followed by the Americas and Africa.^[3] In the US, New York, Wisconsin and Florida are top sources of green beans,^[4] while dry beans are produced primarily in the northern and central plains.^[5]

Heat stress and drought associated with climate change can threaten production of the common bean^[6,7] and reduce its nutritional value.^[8] This presents a significant risk to future food security because of the common bean’s importance to human nutrition globally.

In Mexico, scientists are studying wild beans to understand adaptation mechanisms like heat and drought tolerance, which could potentially be bred into cultivated crops.^[9]

References

^[1] “Phaseolus Vulgaris,” Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d., accessed April 23, 2025. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=280470&isprofile=0&letter=P.

^[2] T. Celmeli et al., “The Nutritional Content of Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Landraces in Comparison to Modern Varieties,” Agronomy 8, no. 9 (2018): 166. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8090166.

^[3] Mark A. Uebersax et al., “Dry Beans ( L.) as a Vital Component of Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security—A Review,” Legume Science 5, no. 1 (2023): e155, https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.155.

^[4] “When Are Green Beans in Season? | How to Pick, Store & Wash,” March 29, 2024, https://fetch.com/blog/smart-shopping/when-are-green-beans-in-season.

^[5] “Production Facts,” US Dry Bean Council, accessed April 23, 2025, https://usdrybeans.com/industry/production-facts/.

^[6] Sidan Li et al., “Impacts of Climate and Environmental Change on Bean Cultivation in China,” Atmosphere 12, no. 12 (December 2021): 1591, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121591.

^[7] Adem Mohammed and Estifanos Feleke, “Future Climate Change Impacts on Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Phenology and Yield with Crop Management Options in Amhara Region, Ethiopia,” CABI Agriculture and Bioscience 3, no. 1 (May 13, 2022): 29, https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-022-00103-9.

^[8] Marijke Hummel et al., “Reduction in Nutritional Quality and Growing Area Suitability of Common Bean under Climate Change Induced Drought Stress in Africa,” Scientific Reports 8, no. 1 (November 1, 2018): 16187, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33952-4.

^[9] Ivon M. Cerda-Hurtado et al., “Climatic Adaptation and Ecological Descriptors of Wild Beans from Mexico,” Ecology and Evolution 8, no. 13 (2018): 6492–6504, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4106.

The US is the world’s largest producer and consumer of beef with sales of approximately $67 billion in 2018.^[1]

Although many savor beef, in developed countries consumption often exceeds dietary guidelines. Beef production is a big business and in the US, this amounts to about 790 million acres or over 40% of the US total land area.^[2] Beef cattle are ruminants, which means they digest their food by enteric (intestinal) fermentation and this produces methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. Beef animals produce about 50 times more greenhouse gas emissions per ounce of protein than wheat and 6 times more than pork.^[3] When temperatures rise, cattle consume more water, lose their appetites, become less fertile, and can even die.^[4] Scientists estimate heat stress costs the US beef industry about $370 million per year.^[5] Droughts, which are expected to increase in coming years, have already affected the availability, price, and quality of pasture, harvested forages, and grains, putting more stress on beef production.^[6] Cooling systems and changes in diets can reduce the impact of climate change on beef animals and their impact on the climate, respectively.

References

^[1] “USDA ERS – Sector at a Glance,” accessed January 28, 2021, https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/cattle-beef/sector-at-a-glance/.

^[2] James S. Drouillard, “Current Situation and Future Trends for Beef Production in the United States of America — A Review,” Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 31, no. 7 (June 21, 2018): 1007–16, https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.18.0428.

^[3] Michael Clark and David Tilman, “Comparative Analysis of Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Production Systems, Agricultural Input Efficiency, and Food Choice,” Environmental Research Letters 12, no. 6 (June 1, 2017): 064016, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa6cd5.

^[4] M. Melissa Rojas-Downing, et al., “Climate Change and Livestock: Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation,” Climate Risk Management 16 (2017): 145–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2017.02.001.

^[5] N. R. St-Pierre, B. Cobanov, and G. Schnitkey, “Economic Losses from Heat Stress by US Livestock Industries,” Journal of Dairy Science, Electronic Supplement, 86 (June 1, 2003): https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)74040-5.

^[6] Long Drought Tests Texas Cattle Ranchers’ Patience and Creativity – The New York Times,” accessed January 28, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/06/business/a-long-drought-tests-texas-cattle-ranchers-patience-and-creativity.html.

Beer is a popular drink with 49 billion gallons (186 million kiloliters) consumed worldwide in 2017,^[1] but change is underway. Barley, the most widely used grain for beer is predicted to experience worldwide yield reductions of 3 to 17% by the end of the century due to climate change. The shortages could result in the price of beer increasing over 193% in Ireland.^[2] Yields of hops have been affected by high temperatures in the Pacific Northwest where over 70% of US production occurs. Droughts are also affecting hop yields in Europe, where in 2015 German production was down over 25% from the previous year.^[3] Some Belgian brewers ferment Lambic beers in the open to cool them and infuse them with wild yeasts drifting in the air, but warmer fall and winter conditions are shortening the brewing season making production much more challenging.^[4] Unfortunately, all seasons will be warming in Belgium, with winters expected to rise as much as 8˚F by the end of the century.^[5]

References

^[1] Kirin Holdings Company, Kirin Beer University Report Global Beer Consumption by Country in 2017, December 20, 2018, https://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/news/2018/1220_01.html.

^[2] Wei Xie et al., “Decreases in Global Beer Supply Due to Extreme Drought and Heat,” Nature Plants 4, no. 11 (November 2018): 964, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-018-0263-1.

^[3] Caitlyn Kennedy, “Climate and Beer,” NOAA, January 13, 2016, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-beer.

^[4] Agence France-Presse, “Climate Change Blamed for Putting Belgium Beer Business at Risk, World News, The Guardian,” November 3, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/04/climate-change-blamed-for-putting-belgium-beer-business-at-risk.

^[5] Center for Climate Adaptation, “Climate Change in Belgium,” Last update: February 29, 2020, https://www.climatechangepost.com/belgium/climate-change/.

Like many fruit crops, the loss of winter chill is likely to negatively impact blackberries as winters continue to warm.^[1] In the Pacific Northwest, the source of 95% of the processed blackberry market, a variety of changes are occurring that have the potential to affect production. These include increasing annual average temperature, increasing incidence of heatwaves, and water shortages.^[2] Climate change is also impacting indigenous harvest patterns in Arctic regions. Berry harvest usually occurs after the end of salmon runs. However, now the timing of berry ripening and the peak of salmon run are occurring at the same time, making co-harvesting far more difficult, leading to impacts on cultural food ability^[3].

References

^[1] C.J. Atkinson, R.M. Brennan, and H.G. Jones, “Declining Chilling and Its Impact on Temperate Perennial Crops,” Environmental and Experimental Botany 91 (July 2013): 48–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2013.02.004.

^[2] Laurie Houston et al., “Specialty Fruit Production in the Pacific Northwest: Adaptation Strategies for a Changing Climate,” Climatic Change 146, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 159–71, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-1951-y.

^[3] Yereth Rosen, “Climate Change Is Affecting Wild Berries, and the People Who Depend on Them,” ArcticToday (blog), March 28, 2018, https://www.arctictoday.com/climate-change-affecting-wild-berries-people-depend/.

Blueberries are a nutritious summertime fruit native to North America. The US and Canada are the world’s largest blueberry producers.^[1]

Beneficial microbes contribute to the health-promoting qualities of blueberries, but extreme weather events associated with climate change may alter the microbial balance in ways that diminish the flavor, shelf life and nutritional qualities of blueberries.^[2]

Wild blueberries in Maine, used mostly for frozen fruit, are susceptible to increases in temperature and reduced rainfall, which may reduce the nutritional value of the fruit.^[3,4] However, with proper irrigation, warmer temperatures may extend the growing season, which could produce greater blueberry yields.^[5]

References

^[1] James Burton, “Where Are Blueberries Grown?,” WorldAtlas, April 25, 2017, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-blueberry-growers-in-the-world.html.

^[2] Blueberries Consulting, “Climate Change Is Affecting the Vital Microbes of Blueberries,” Blueberries Consulting (blog), April 16, 2024, https://blueberriesconsulting.com/en/el-cambio-climatico-esta-afectando-a-los-microbios-vitales-de-los-arandanos/.

^[3] Oluwafemi A Alaba et al., “Will Global Warming Reduce the Nutritional Quality of Wild Blueberries?,” Climate Change Ecology 8 (November 1, 2024): 100088, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecochg.2024.100088.

^[4] “Climate Change Could Negatively Impact Maine’s Blueberry Crop,” newscentermaine.com, June 5, 2021, https://www.newscentermaine.com/article/news/community/climate-change-could-negatively-impact-maines-blueberry-crop/97-d7d483c4-93e8-4ae3-ba4f-6b11a86d7368.

^[5] Nicole Ogrysko, “In the Face of Climate Change, Maine’s Wild Blueberry Growers See a Bit of Hope,” Maine Public, November 3, 2022, https://www.mainepublic.org/environment-and-outdoors/2022-11-03/in-the-face-of-climate-change-maines-wild-blueberry-growers-see-a-bit-of-hope.

Although called Brazil nuts, 80% of the world’s supply comes from Bolivia. Climate change is causing longer and more intense droughts, decimating Brazil nut production. Severe droughts in 2016 caused more than an 80% production drop in harvest volume in some areas. Over 15,000 Bolivian families depend on Brazil nuts for most of their income.^[1]

References

^[1] “How Is Climate Change Affecting Nut and Berry Harvests in the Bolivian Amazon?” World Wildlife Fund, accessed January 29, 2021, https://www.worldwildlife.org/magazine/issues/fall-2018/articles/how-is-climate-change-affecting-nut-and-berry-harvests-in-the-bolivian-amazon.

In the US, almost all broccoli is produced in California with an annual value of over $800 million.^[1] Scientists predict that increasing CO2 levels and temperatures in concert with increased fertilization will likely increase yields in the future.^[2] With warming, more production will occur in winter months, which are now too cold and will shift away from the warmer months of the year.^[3] In coming years, broccoli production is expected to face increasing risk from heat waves, floods, and decreased water quality and quantity.^[4]

References

^[1] Broccoli: Fresh and Processing Market Production Value 2020,” Statista, accessed July 29, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1030612/us-market-broccoli-production-value/.

^[2] Sumin Kim et al., “A Hybrid Decision Tool for Optimizing Broccoli Production in a Changing Climate,” Horticulture Environment and Biotechnology, n.d., https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-020-00317-8.

^[3] Alison Marklein et al., “Projected Temperature Increases May Require Shifts in the Growing Season of Cool-Season Crops and the Growing Locations of Warm-Season Crops,” Science of the Total Environment 746 (December 1, 2020): 140918, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140918.

^[4] Emile Elias et al., “Southwest Regional Climate Hub and California Subsidiary Hub Assessment of Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies” (United States. Department of Agriculture, August 2015), https://doi.org/10.32747/2015.6879806.ch.

Buckwheat is a gluten-free, nutrient-rich seed that, while unrelated to wheat, can be used to make flour, groats or noodles.^[1] It is a warm-season crop grown mainly in Russia, China, and Central and Eastern Europe. In the US, it is primarily grown in New York, North Dakota, Minnesota and Washington.^[2]

Although some varieties of buckwheat are vulnerable to heat stress with rising temperatures,^[3] other varieties may increase their rate of photosynthesis in an increasingly warm climate.^[4] In addition, buckwheat may be more resilient than wheat in the face of drought, thus could be an alternative to wheat in extreme drought conditions.^[5]

References

^[1] “Buckwheat 101: Nutrition Facts and Health Benefits,” Healthline, May 10, 2019, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/foods/buckwheat.

^[2] “Buckwheat,” Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, April 2024, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/buckwheat.

^[3] Lauranne Aubert et al., “Comparison of High Temperature Resistance in Two Buckwheat Species Fagopyrum Esculentum and Fagopyrum Tataricum,” Journal of Plant Physiology 251 (August 2020): 153222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2020.153222.

^[4] University of the Basque Country, “Buckwheat Responds Better than Wheat to Future Climate Conditions, Scientists Confirm,” accessed July 16, 2025, https://phys.org/news/2024-06-buckwheat-wheat-future-climate-conditions.html.

^[5] Xabier Simón Martínez-Goñi et al., “Could Buckwheat and Spelt Be Alternatives to Wheat under Future Environmental Conditions? Study of Their Physiological Response to Drought,” Agricultural Water Management 278 (March 2023): 108176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108176.

Capers are the immature flower buds from the caper bush, which is known for being adaptable, drought, salt, and heat-tolerant. Most commercial production occurs in Iraq, Morocco, Turkey, and Greece.^[1] Climate change models suggest that the caper bush is expected to experience minimal effects from climate change and the land suitable for production may increase.^[2]

References:

^[1] “Caper,” in Wikipedia, August 7, 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caper&oldid=1102844267.

^[2] Uzma Ashraf et al., “Impacts of Climate Change on Capparis Spinosa L. Based on Ecological Niche Modeling,” Peerj 6 (October 16, 2018): e5792, https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5792.

China is by far the largest producer of cabbage worldwide at 33 million tons. In the US a total of about 1 million tons are produced per year, mainly in California, Wisconsin, New York and Florida.^[1,2] Cabbages are sensitive to high temperatures, which cause the plants to bolt (flower) and reduce yield and quality. Developing more climate resilient varieties can help address this issue, however.^[3] The quality and quantity of water for irrigation of cabbage is likely to decline in the western US in coming years.^[4]

References

^[1] “ The World Leaders In Cabbage Production,” WorldAtlas, April 25, 2017, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-leaders-in-cabbage-production.html.

^[2] Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, “Cabbage,” October 2021, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/cabbage.

^[3] NYSERDA, “Responding to Climate Change in New York State (ClimAID),” Nov. 2011, https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/About/Publications/Energy-Analysis-Reports-and-Studies/Environmental-Research-and-Development-Technical-Reports/Response-to-Climate-Change-in-New-York.

^[4] Emile Elias et al., “Southwest Regional Climate Hub and California Subsidiary Hub Assessment of Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies” (US Department of Agriculture, August 2015), https://doi.org/10.32747/2015.6879806.ch.

Over half of the world’s cardamom comes from Guatemala, but climate change is posing increasing risks to production and the livelihood of thousands of small scale producers.^[1] In the Cardamom Hills region of India, the incidence of minor pest infestations has increased.^[2] The story is the same in Bhutan, where cardamom and farmers face an uncertain future because of climate change.^[3]

References:

^[1] “Waddick – Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture in Guatem.Pdf,” accessed March 11, 2021, https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/waddick_accessible.pdf.

^[2] Murugan, et al., (2012). Climate change and crop yields in the Indian Cardamom Hills, 1978–2007 CE. Climatic Change, 110, 737–753 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0115-8.

^[3] “Climate Change Impacts Make Cardamom Farming a Less Predictable Livelihood – Kuensel Online,” accessed March 11, 2021,https://kuenselonline.com/climate-change-impacts-make-cardamom-farming-a-less-predictable-livelihood/.

California is responsible for two-thirds of the carrot crop in the United States. The popular vegetable is a very temperature dependent crop and high temperatures result in undesirable flavors, off colors, and a fibrous texture in the roots. Shifts in planting date should overcome these issues. Future water shortfalls for irrigation may also affect yields.^[1]

References

^[1] Alison Marklein et al., “Projected Temperature Increases May Require Shifts in the Growing Season of Cool-Season Crops and the Growing Locations of Warm-Season Crops,” Science of The Total Environment 746 (December 1, 2020): 140918, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140918.

About a quarter of the world’s cashews are grown in Vietnam followed by Nigeria, India and the Ivory Coast.^[1] In Vietnam, drought and unseasonal rains have had detrimental effects on cashew production. The unseasonal rains interfere with pollination and create ideal conditions for insect pests and diseases causing more losses.^[2] In India, cashew crops are at risk due to rising sea levels since the majority of cashew plantations are in coastal regions. Aside from their economic value and unique taste, cashews are an important crop because of the tree’s ability to sequester carbon when grown in high-density environments.^[3] Adoption of improved farming practices are helping to maintain production.

References

^[1] Cashew Nuts: Global Production Share by Country 2016,” Statista, accessed August 2, 2021, https://www-statista-com.proxy.library.cornell.edu/statistics/967708/global-cashew-nut-production-share/.

^[2] The Clipper, “Cashews in Vietnam Struggle with Climate Change and Diseases,” The Clipper Nuts and Dried Fruit Magazine, November 6, 2017, https://theclippermag.com/2017/11/06/cashews-vietnam-struggle-climate-change-diseases.

^[3] Thimmasamudram Raghavareddy Rupa, Raghavan Rejani, and Moodakare Gopalakrishna Bhat, “Impact of Climate Change on Cashew and Adaptation Strategies,” in Climate-Resilient Horticulture: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies, ed. Harish Chandra Prasad Singh, et al., (India: Springer, 2013), 189–98, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-0974-4_17.

In the US, 90% of the cauliflower is grown in California.^[1] Cauliflower grows best in a narrow range of temperatures, so is especially at risk of high temperatures, which results in smaller and yellow heads. However, as winters warm in California, yields are expected to rise and acreage will increase in northern regions of the state, now too cold for production.^[2] Water shortages will likely become a challenge for cauliflower production in future years.

References

^[1] “Cauliflower,” accessed September 19, 2022, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/cauliflower.

^[2] Elias et al., “Southwest Regional Climate Hub and California Subsidiary Hub Assessment of Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies.” https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_journals/2015/rmrs_2015_elias_e001.pdf.

About two-thirds of the world’s cassava is grown in Africa, followed by Asia at 27%.^[1] In Sub-Saharan Africa, cassava is the second most important source of carbohydrate. Across Africa it is consumed by 500 million people daily.^[2] Climate change predictions suggest that cassava may actually benefit from climate change, due to it being drought- and heat-tolerant.^[3]

References

^[1] “10 World’s Biggest Cassava Producers,” The Science Agriculture (blog), May 1, 2022, https://scienceagri.com/10-worlds-biggest-cassava-producers/.

^[2]“Cassava as an Income-Earning Crop for Small Farmers,” accessed September 19, 2022, https://blogs.worldbank.org/africacan/cassava-production-poverty-alleviation-and-intra-regional-trade-in-sub-saharan-africa.

^[3] Jarvis et al., “Is Cassava the Answer to African Climate Change Adaptation?,” Tropical Plant Biology 5, no. 1 (March 1, 2012): 9–29, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12042-012-9096-7.

Catfish — a popular food in Asia, Africa, and Europe — is a staple of Southern cuisine in the US. About 94% of farm-raised catfish in the US are produced in Mississippi, Louisianna, Alabama and Arkansas.^[1] This warmwater species is raised in large ponds with fresh water pumped from underground wells.^[2]

Warmer water temperatures associated with climate change may increase the rate of growth in catfish, leading them to reach maturity sooner, which could potentially result in better survival rates and increase catfish production.^[3] However, increased temperatures could also reduce the fish’s appetite so it takes longer for them to grow to market size.^[4] Higher water temperatures can also stimulate algae blooms, reducing oxygen levels in the ponds to an extent that stresses fish.^[4]

References

^[1] “Where Are U.S. Catfish Farm-Raised?” September 25, 2024, https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Where-are-US-catfish-farm-raised.

^[2] “Catfish From Farm to Table | Food Safety and Inspection Service,” USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, September 20, 2024, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/meat-fish/catfish-farm-table.

^[3] Betsy Barber, The Effects of Climate Change Differ by Habitat Type for Channel Catfish, August 4, 2020, https://habitat.fisheries.org/the-effects-of-climate-change-differ-by-habitat-type-for-channel-catfish/.

^[4] Lynn Fantom, Catfish Revival – Aquaculture North America, January 4, 2023, https://www.aquaculturenorthamerica.com/catfish-revival/.

The Caspian Sea, once home to the world’s largest population of sturgeons, the source of caviar, has experienced a 90% decline in this fish species over the last three generations, due to climate change and pollution.^[1]

References

^[1] Seals, caviar and oil: Caspian Sea faces pollution threat. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://phys.org/news/2019-04-caviar-oil-caspian-sea-pollution.html.

Spain is the top producer of celery globally followed closely by California in the US and then Mexico.^[1] Both Spain and California will experience more climate change stress in coming years, meaning more risk to celery production. Scientists have demonstrated that when grown under higher CO2 levels, as expected in the future, celery yields doubled and plants have higher levels of vitamin C and total antioxidant capacity.^[2] Growing celery requires considerable water, 9-24 inches annually. However, advances in modeling crop specific irrigation needs, including the use of non-potable water, may help with water management for celery and other crops under a changing climate.^[3]

References

^[1] “Vegetables; Celery (Other than Celeriac), Fresh or Chilled Exports by Country |2018,” accessed August 2, 2021, https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2018/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/070940.

^[2] Mehdi Benyoussef Bisbis, Nazim Gruda, and Michael Blanke, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Vegetable Production and Product Quality – A Review,” Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (January 1, 2018): 1602–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.224.

^[3] Christoph Schwaller et al., “Estimating the Agricultural Irrigation Demand for Planning of Non-Potable Water Reuse Projects,” Agricultural Water Management 244 (February 1, 2021): 106529, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106529.

Cheese comes in nearly 2,000 varieties worldwide, and more than 300 types are produced in the US alone.^[1] The European Union is the world’s top cheese producer, followed by the US.

Made from the milk of cows or goats, cheese is vulnerable to factors that influence milk production and quality, such as heat stress on animals, availability of water, and climate-related effects on feed quality and abundance.^[2]

Like wine, the flavor and character of cheese is influenced by “terroir” – the specific geographic location where it is produced – which includes the soil and plants upon the animals forage, and the caves where the cheese ages.^[3] In France, hundreds of varieties of cheese are defined by the unique character of each subregion and by the animals’ breed and care. New rules may be required to continue production in the face of climate change, and French farmers will likely adapt by taking steps to keep animals cool and comfortable, and storing or importing feed.

References

^[1] “Cheese Industry Profile,” accessed May 21, 2025, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/livestock-dairy-poultry/dairy/cheese-industry-profile.

^[2] “Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply” (Chicago: USEPA), accessed May 22, 2025, https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply.

^[3] Catherine Porter, “The Rigid World of French Cheesemaking Meets Unbound Climate Change,” The New York Times, October 29, 2023, sec. World, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/29/world/europe/french-cheese-climate-change.html.

Turkey and the US are the top producers of cherries, globally.^[1] In the US, 90% of the sweet cherries are grown in Washington, California and Oregon, while about 75% of tart cherries come from Michigan.^[2] Extremely high temperatures took a toll on production in Washington in 2021,^[3] and the loss of winter chill poses additional risks for cherries.^[4] In Turkey and elsewhere scientists have shown that flowering and harvests are occurring earlier although there are differences between varieties.^[5]

References

^[1] The Leading Producers Of Cherries In The World,” WorldAtlas, April 25, 2017, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-leading-producers-of-cherries-in-the-world.html.

^[2]“Cherries,” accessed August 3, 2021, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/cherries.

^[3] “Extreme Heat Takes out Significant Portion of Northwest Cherry Crop | The Spokesman-Review,” accessed September 16, 2022, https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2021/jul/14/extreme-heat-takes-out-significant-portion-of-nort/.

^[4] Hossein Noorazar et al., “The Risk for Insufficient Chill Accumulation: A Climate Change Perspective for Apple and Cherry Production in the United States,” BioRxiv, August 27, 2020, 2020.08.26.268979, https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.08.26.268979.

^[5] Hasan Cumhur Sarisu, “Change of Flowering and Harvest Dates of Cherry Varieties with Air Temperature,” Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 30, no. 1 (2021): 351–59, https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/118645.

Includes: Sweet pepper, banana pepper, cayenne, jalapeño, Anaheim, New Mexico chile, habanero, Scotch bonnet

Bell peppers and many varieties of chilis are consumed fresh, dried, pickled and ground as spices. Ranging in flavor from very mild to quite hot, they are featured in cuisine across the globe.^[1] In addition to being used as whole ingredients, chili varieties are used in spices like paprika, a staple in Hungarian, Mexican and Spanish cuisine, as well as Tabasco sauce and chili powders.^[2]

China is the world’s largest producer of chilis, followed by Mexico, Turkey, and Indonesia.^[3] In the US, most are grown in California, New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.^[4]

Bell and chili peppers are adapted to warm climates, but prolonged heat stress that accompanies climate change can reduce fruit yield.^{[5, 6]} In 2022, the hot sauce Sriracha was in short supply because of a long-term drought in Mexico and the southwestern US.^[7]

In addition, chili peppers are susceptible to fungal infections, which thrive in hot, humid conditions, so breeders are developing varieties that can resist these threats.^[8]

References

^[1] Karen Sottosanti, “Capsicum Annuum,” in Britannica, April 28, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/plant/Capsicum-annuum.

^[2] Ryan Donato, “Paprika vs. Chili Powder: Understanding the Spice Spectrum,” Raw Spice Bar (blog), December 12, 2023, https://rawspicebar.com/blogs/spices-101/paprika-vs-chili-powder-understanding-the-spice-spectrum.

^[3] “Crops and Livestock Products: Chillies and Peppers,” FAOSTAT (blog), accessed April 28, 2025, https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize.

^[4] “Bell and Chile Peppers,” Western Institute for Food Safety and Security (blog), accessed April 28, 2025, https://www.wifss.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Peppers_PDF.pdf.

^[5] M.K. Kim et al., “Comparative Heat Stress Responses of Three Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) Genotypes Differing Temperature Sensitivity,” Sci Rep 13, no. 14203 (n.d.), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41418-5.

^[6] L. Karma Bhutia et al., “Effects of Climate Change on Growth and Development of Chilli,” Agrotechnology 7, no. 2 (2018): 180. https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.1000180.

^[7] Margaret Osborne, “Climate Change May Be Responsible for Sriracha Hot Sauce Shortage,” Smithsonian Magazine, accessed April 28, 2025, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/climate-change-may-be-responsible-for-sriracha-hot-sauce-shortage-180980315/.

^[8] Clarissa Wei, “The Quest to Save Chili Peppers,” The New Yorker, June 16, 2023, https://www.newyorker.com/science/elements/the-quest-to-save-chili-peppers.

The slender equatorial cacao belt is likely to see higher temperatures and get drier, not a good combination for cacao plants.^[1] West Africa has a long dry season that is getting drier, with annual rainfall predicted to decrease up to 30% over the second half of the twentieth century.^[2] A severe drought in Bahia, Brazil, during the 2015-2016 growing season led to 15% of the cacao trees dying and almost a 90% decrease in yields.^[3] Changes in the global temperature could help some destructive cacao diseases spread to other, previously unaffected areas.^[4]

References

^[1] Michon Scott, “Climate and Chocolate, NOAA Climate.Gov,” February 10, 2016, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-chocolate.

^[2] Götz Schroth et al., “Vulnerability to Climate Change of Cocoa in West Africa: Patterns, Opportunities and Limits to Adaptation,” Science of The Total Environment 556 (June 15, 2016), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.024<.

^[3] Lauranne et al., “Climate Change Could Threaten Cocoa Production: Effects of 2015-16 El Niño-Related Drought on Cocoa Agroforests in Bahia, Brazil,” PLOS ONE 13, no. 7 (July 10, 2018): e0200454, 1, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200454.

^[4] Sania Ortega Andrade, Grace Páez, Teresa Feria, and Jesús Muños, “Climate Change and the Risk of Spread of the Fungus from the High Mortality of Theobroma Cocoa in Latin America,” Neotropical Biodiversity 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2017), 30, https://doi.org/10.1080/23766808.2016.1266072.

Clove is a spice that adds a distinctive flavor to savory and sweet dishes, including “pumpkin spice” blends and curries. Clove trees are native to Indonesia’s Muluku or “Spice” Islands. Madagascar is currently the world’s top exporter, followed by Singapore and Indonesia.^[1]

High temperatures and erratic rainfall associated with climate change are significantly impacting clove production. For example, early hot summers in Indonesia bring sudden rainfall, which prevents trees from flowering; such conditions drastically reduced the yield of clove trees in 2020.^[2] Clove trees are also sensitive to drought, which can cause plants to die.

In Madagascar, increasingly frequent and intense cyclones have taken a toll on clove production, leaving trees stripped of leaves or uprooted.^[3] Some growers there have adapted by pruning their clove trees extensively, or even shifted to producing other crops.

References

^[1] “Clove – Global Market Update : Berjé Inc,” accessed May 27, 2025, https://berjeinc.com/media/berje-report/clove-global-market-update/.

^[2] “Clove Farmers in Indonesia’s ‘Spice Islands’ Face Increasing Uncertainty in a Changing Climate | Earth Journalism Network,” May 27, 2020, https://earthjournalism.net/stories/clove-farmers-in-indonesias-spice-islands-face-increasing-uncertainty-in-a-changing-climate.

^[3] “Adapting to Cyclones in Madagascar’s Analanjirofo Region,” International Development Research Center, November 2010, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08b0bed915d3cfd000ace/Adaptation-Insight-Madagascar-Adapting-to-cyclones.pdf.

Almost 50% of the world’s coconut production occurs in Indonesia, Philippines, and India.^[1] Seventy percent of the production occurs in coastal zones that are threatened by rising seas. During the 18 months a coconut takes to mature, it can also be exposed to increasingly severe or prolonged weather events. Increasing dry spells and even greater cloudiness can reduce yield and quality in some regions.^[2]

References

^[1] Coconut Production Worldwide by Leading Country 2019,” Statista, accessed March 11, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1040499/world-coconut-production-by-leading-producers/

^[2] Francesco Fiondella, International Research Institute for Climate and Society, “Climate and Coconuts,” March 30, 2009, https://iri.columbia.edu/news/climate-and-coconuts/.

Our changing climate is affecting almost every aspect of coffee production.^[1] Just a little warming at the wrong time can in fact reduce yield, flavor, and aroma. In Tanzania, where about 2.5 million people depend on coffee for a livelihood, increases in nighttime temperatures since the 1960s have already caused yields to drop, and severe declines are expected as conditions continue to warm.^[2] In parts of Mexico, increasing temperatures could reduce coffee production by over 30%, making it unviable in the 2020s.^[3] With continued climate change, the world’s coffee production area will likely be cut in half by 2050.^[4] Wild coffee species, critical sources of traits for climate change resilience and pest resistance, might go extinct in coming decades.^[5] Globally, climate changes are also resulting in more disease and pest problems.^[6] Most harmful is the coffee berry borer, a beetle that is also spreading into new areas as they get hotter.^[7] Growing conditions have changed so much and a disease has become such a problem in areas of Central America that coffee production is no longer an option and some farmers are switching to cocoa, which thrives in the warmer weather.^[8]

References

^[1] Corey Watts, “A Brewing Storm: The Climate Change Risks to Coffee,” The Climate Institute, August 29, 2016, 1, http://www.climateinstitute.org.au/coffee.html.

^[2] A. C. W. Craparo et al., “Coffea Arabica Yields Decline in Tanzania Due to Climate Change: Global Implications,” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 207 (July 15, 2015), 1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.03.005.

^[3] C. Gay et al., “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture: A Case of Study of Coffee Production in Veracruz, Mexico,” Climatic Change 79, no. 3 (December 1, 2006), 259, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-006-9066-x..

^[4] Christian Bunn et al., “A Bitter Cup: Climate Change Profile of Global Production of Arabica and Robusta Coffee,” Climatic Change 129, no. 1 (March 1, 2015): 89, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1306-x.

^[5] Aaron P. Davis et al., “High Extinction Risk for Wild Coffee Species and Implications for Coffee Sector Sustainability,” Science Advances 5, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): eaav3473, 1, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav3473.

^[6] Jacques Avelino et al., “The Coffee Rust Crises in Colombia and Central America (2008–2013): Impacts, Plausible Causes and Proposed Solutions,” Food Security 7, no. 2 (April 1, 2015), 303, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0446-9.

^[7] Corey Watts, “A Brewing Storm: The Climate Change Risks to Coffee,” The Climate Institute, August 29, 2016, 1, http://www.climateinstitute.org.au/coffee.html.

^[8] Luc Cohen and Ivan Castro, “As Climate Change Threatens CentAm Coffee, a Cocoa Boom Is Born,” Reuters, January 18, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-cocoa-coffee-idUSKCN0UW1AV.

Corn is the world’s most important grain, based on production volume. The US produces about one third of the global crop.^[1] Increasing temperature stress on corn is predicted to reduce global yields by 45% by late in this century.^[2] Increased nighttime temperatures disrupt the pollination process, reducing grain yields by more than 80%.^[3] Finally there is an increasing risks of a simultaneous shock to global corn production with far reaching impacts.^[4]

References

^[1] Topic: Corn,” Statista, accessed March 11, 2021, https://www.statista.com/topics/986/corn/.

^[2] Delphine Deryng et al., “Global Crop Yield Response to Extreme Heat Stress under Multiple Climate Change Futures,” Environmental Research Letters 9, no. 3 (March 1, 2014): 034011, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034011.

^[3] Jerry L. Hatfield, “Increased Temperatures Have Dramatic Effects on Growth and Grain Yield of Three Maize Hybrids,” no. 1 (2016): 0, 1, https://doi.org/10.2134/ael2015.10.0006.

^[4] Michelle Tigchelaar et al., “Future Warming Increases Probability of Globally Synchronized Maize Production Shocks,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 26 (June 26, 2018): 6644–49, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718031115.

Most cinnamon comes from Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and China.^[1] Climate change is predicted to reduce yields of all major crops in Sri Lanka in coming years.^[2] Rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns are predicted to also have negative impacts on agriculture in Indonesia.^[3]

References:

^[1] “Cinnamon Export Share Worldwide by Country, 2015,” Statista, accessed March 11, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/593167/global-distribution-cinnamon-exports-by-country/.

^[2] Rasu Eeswaran, “Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in the Agriculture Sector of Sri Lanka: What We Learnt and Way Forward,” in Handbook of Climate Change Communication: Vol. 2: Practice of Climate Change Communication, ed. Walter Leal Filho et al., Climate Change Management (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018), 97–110, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70066-3_8.

^[3] “Oktaviani et al. – The Impact of Global Climate Change on the Indones.Pdf,” accessed March 11, 2021, http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/126762/filename/126973.pdf.

Cottonseed oil, primarily used in foods, had a market value at $5.8 billion globally in 2019, with a predicted value of $6 billion in 2025.^[1] However, excessively high temperatures in particular are predicted to reduce cotton yields by more than 60% by the end of the century.^[2] To help address this increasing risk growers can adopt climate-smart practices and improve water-use efficiency, and plant breeders can continue to develop more resilient varieties.^[3]

References

^[1] “Global Market Value of Cottonseed Oil 2025,” Statista, accessed March 15, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/999312/cottonseed-oil-market-value-worldwide/.

^[2] Wolfram Schlenker and Michael J. Roberts, “Nonlinear Temperature Effects Indicate Severe Damages to U.S. Crop Yields under Climate Change,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 37 (September 15, 2009): 15594, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0906865106.

^[3] International Trade Center, “Cotton and Climate Change: Impacts and Options to Mitigate and Adapt,” accessed January 23, 2019, 27, http://www.intracen.org/Cotton-and-Climate-Change-Impacts-and-options-to-mitigate-and-adapt/

Warming oceans present an immense challenge to crab fishing operations. On the West Coast of the US, a coalition of commercial fishers filed a lawsuit in 2018 against major fossil fuel companies, suing for damages due to algae blooms made worse by the warming waters and degradation of fishing areas.^[1] In addition, ocean acidification is severely dissolving the shells of young crabs in coastal habitats.^[2]

References

^[1] Crab Fishers Sue Fossil Fuel Industry Over Climate Change Damage. (2018, November 14). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from InsideClimate News website: https://insideclimatenews.org/news/14112018/crab-fishermen-climate-change-lawsuit-fossil-fuel-companies-ocean-algae-neurotoxin-fishery-closure.

^[2] Nina Bednaršek et al., “Exoskeleton Dissolution with Mechanoreceptor Damage in Larval Dungeness Crab Related to Severity of Present-Day Ocean Acidification Vertical Gradients,” Science of The Total Environment 716 (May 10, 2020): 136610, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136610.

In the US, Wisconsin produces about 62% of the cranberry crop followed by Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Oregon.^[1] Several things are changing for cranberries including summer heat waves that forces farmers to use water to cool plants, which is expensive. Droughts, heavy rains that increase fruit disease, and extreme hail storms are also increasing. Warm temperatures late in the summer delays the fruit from turning red and delays harvest. Warming winters are compromising their required dormant period without which they will bear fewer fruit the following year. Even the lack of winter ice on the bogs has a negative impact since farmers cannot spread sand on the ice, which stimulates new root growth.^[2,3] Scientists predict that in New Jersey cranberry production will only be viable along the state’s southern coast by the end of the century.^[4]

References

^[1] Cranberries | Agricultural Marketing Resource Center,” accessed August 6, 2021, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/cranberries.

^[2] “Cranberries, a Thanksgiving Staple, Are Feeling the Pinch of Climate Change,” Environment, November 25, 2020, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-affecting-massachusetts-cranberries.

^[3] Mary Kate McCoy, “Cranberries, Wisconsin’s Most Profitable Fruit, Face An Uncertain Future,” Wisconsin Public Radio, March 2, 2020, https://www.wpr.org/cranberries-wisconsins-most-profitable-fruit-face-uncertain-future.

^[4] Kikombo Ilunga Ngoy and Daniela Shebitz, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Areas Suitable to Grow Some Key Crops in New Jersey, USA,” Environments 7, no. 10 (October 2020): 76, https://doi.org/10.3390/environments7100076

Studies show that over 85% of crayfish species globally are highly sensitive to climate change, and many have low adaptive capacity due to poor dispersal ability. Regions with vulnerable populations include the south-eastern US and Australia, and Mexico.^[1]

References

^[1] Hossain, M. A. et al. (2018). Assessing the vulnerability of freshwater crayfish to climate change. Diversity and Distributions, 24(12), 1830–1843, https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12831.

Cucumber is a warm-season vegetable that is used raw in salads, soups and dips, and as a pickling vegetable.

China, Turkey, Russia and Mexico are the world’s largest cucumber producers, and the US is the world’s eighth largest source of the crop.^[1] Florida, Georgia, North Caroline and California are the US’s largest cucumber producers, but 60% of fresh cucumbers consumed in the US are imported, primarily from Mexico and Canada.^[2]

Increasing temperatures and drought can impact cucumber crops, affecting plant growth and leading to increased threats from insects and disease.^[3]

Growers can use drip irrigation systems and resilient cucumber varieties to combat these threats.^[4]

References

^[1] “Cucumber Production by Country 2025,” accessed April 14, 2025, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/cucumber-production-by-country.

^[2] “Most US Fresh Cucumbers Are Imported from Mexico | Wilson Center,” January 21, 2022, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/most-us-fresh-cucumbers-are-imported-mexico.

^[3] “Climatic Changes on Cucumber Growth, Flower, Fruit Development,” accessed May 6, 2025, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/49718.

^[4] Ess Team, “Climate Change and Cucumber Farming Challenges and Adaptation Strategies,” EssFeed, March 5, 2025, https://open.ai/720f4900e8a74b2548f6c68dc23293b0?rand=29892.

India grows 70% of the world’s cumin crop.^[1] The seeds of this herb are used whole or ground into a powder and it is used in taco seasoning, chili powder, and curry powder. Due to adverse climatic conditions during the 2021-22 growing season, production of cumin in India is projected to drop 35% causing a sharp rise in price.

References

^[1] “Cumin prices set to shoot up 30-35% as India’s production expected to fall by 35%, says Crisil,” The Economic Times, May 3, 2022, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/cumin-prices-set-to-shoot-up-30-35-as-indias-production-expected-to-fall-by-35-says-crisil/articleshow/91279632.cms?from=mdr.

The common dab, Limanda limanda, is a fish that used to considered by-catch but now is popular in Europe and elsewhere. The Marine Conservation Society recommends its consumption to relieve pressure on traditional types of fish.^[1] Because of warming waters and consequently more food in the Barents Sea, dab and other species are expanding northward.^[2]

References

^[1] “Forget Cod, We Should All Start Eating DAB and Chips, Say Experts | Daily Mail Online,” accessed August 6, 2021, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5502775/Forget-cod-start-eating-DAB-chips-say-experts.html.

^[2] “Climate change is pushing boreal fish northwards – FRAM – Nordområdesenter for klima- og miljøforskning FRAM – High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment,” accessed August 6, 2021, http://polarenvironment.custompublish.com/climate-change-is-pushing-boreal-fish-northwards.5859106-373134.html#.YQ2StNNKjAw.

Globally, Egypt produces the most dates followed by Iran, Algeria and Saudi Arabia. In the US, 90% of the date production occurs in California.^[1] Temperature and water stresses are predicted to shift global production in coming years with less occuring in Saudi Arabia and parts of Iran, but potentially more in parts of Bolivia and Venezuela.^[2] Predictions indicate that by 2100 Saudi Arabia’s current suitable area of production will be reduced by 85%.^[3] In California, scientists have developed tools to optimize irrigation for dates. This is particularly important as water resources become more limited and more expensive.^[4]

References

^[1] “Dates,” accessed August 6, 2021, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/dates.

^[2] Farzin Shabani, Lalit Kumar, and Subhashni Taylor, “Climate Change Impacts on the Future Distribution of Date Palms: A Modeling Exercise Using CLIMEX,” PLoS ONE 7, no. 10 (October 24, 2012): e48021, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048021.

^[3] A. Allbed, L. Kumar, and F. Shabani, “Climate Change Impacts on Date Palm Cultivation in Saudi Arabia,” The Journal of Agricultural Science 155, no. 8 (October 2017): 1203–18, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859617000260.

^[4] Aliasghar Montazar et al., “Determination of Actual Evapotranspiration and Crop Coefficients of California Date Palms Using the Residual of Energy Balance Approach,” Water 12, no. 8 (August 2020): 2253, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082253.

Vietnam is the source of most dragon fruit and most of the 1.3 million tons (1.2 million metric tons) produced annually is exported. Here it is facing increasing challenges from climate change, mainly the increasing incidence of droughts.^[1] In India, farmers are expanding dragon fruit production because it is more resilient than crops they typically grow and allows them to diversify their incomes.^[2]

References

^[1] Research and Markets, “Dragon Fruit Market Projections 2020-2025: Production and Consumption, Imports and Exports, Price Trend Analysis,” GlobeNewswire News Room, August 19, 2020, http://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/08/19/2080469/0/en/Dragon-Fruit-Market-Projections-2020-2025-Production-Consumption-Imports-Exports-Price-Trend-Analysis.html.

^[2] Climate change blues: ‘everyday monsoon’ foxes Mizo farmers – The Hindu BusinessLine. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/science/climate-change-blues-everyday-monsoon-foxes-mizo-farmers/article9864920.ece.

References

^[1] Limited, B.P.P.C. (n.d.). Thai farmers feeling the heat of climate debate. Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://www.bangkokpost.com website: https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/special-reports/1590338/thai-farmers-feeling-the-heat-of-climate-debate.

^[2] Michael Taylor, “China’s Love of Stinky Durian ‘next Big Threat’ to Malaysian Rainforest,” Reuters, September 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malaysia-forests-durian-idUSKCN1VX1WN.

There are marine and freshwater eels commonly used in Asian cuisine with Japan consuming 70% of the global catch. The eel consumed in the US is a freshwater species.^[1] Major freshwater eel populations have been declining since the 1970s and 1980s. The decline is attributed to climate change that affects survival of the young, along with pollution, habitat loss, and the impact of commercial fisheries. Scientists have determined that the ability of the European eel to migrate from the ocean, where born, to fresh water streams is being affected by warming waters and ocean acidity.^[2] A climate change caused decline in food for young eels is another factor.^[3] Attempts have been made to farm-raise eels in Maine, but it has proven to be very challenging.^[4] However it does occur in Asia.^[5]

References

^[1] “Eel as Food,” in Wikipedia, August 19, 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eel_as_food&oldid=1105232936.

^[2] Francisco O. Borges et al., “Ocean Warming and Acidification May Challenge the Riverward Migration of Glass Eels,” Biology Letters 15, no. 1 (January 31, 2019): 20180627, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0627.

^[3] Sylvain Bonhommeau et al., “Impact of Climate on Eel Population of the Northern Hemis phere,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 373 (December 23, 2008): 71–80, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07696.

^[4] “American Eels – Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research – University of Maine,” Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research (blog), accessed September 17, 2022, https://umaine.edu/cooperative-aquaculture/american-eels-anguilla-rotrata/.

^[5] “Eels – Aquaculture Prospects,” 2021, https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquaculture/publications/species-freshwater/eels-aquaculture-prospects.

Like many domesticated plants, eggplant is not as sturdy as its wild relatives, so plant breeders at the World Vegetable Center are looking for traits like drought and heat resistance in wild types to develop an eggplant more resilient to climate change.^[1]

References

^[1] “To Secure the Future of Food, Look to the Ancestors of Eggplant,” accessed March 15, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/wild-relatives-eggplant/.

References

^[1] T. A. Ebeid, T. Suzuki, and T. Sugiyama, “High Ambient Temperature Influences Eggshell Quality and Calbindin-D28k Localization of Eggshell Gland and All Intestinal Segments of Laying Hens,” Poultry Science 91, no. 9 (September 1, 2012): 2282, https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2011-01898.

^[2] D. S. F. Lamarca, D. F. Pereira, M. M. Magalhães, and D. D. Salgado, “Climate Change in Layer Poultry Farming: Impact of Heat Waves in Region of Bastos, Brazil,” Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science 20, no. 4 (December 2018), 657, https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2018-0750.

^[3] A. N. Hristov et al., “Climate Change Effects on Livestock in the Northeast US and Strategies for Adaptation,” Climatic Change 146, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 39, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2023-z.

References

^[1] “Where Are Figs Grown?,” WorldAtlas, accessed March 15, 2021, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-fig-growing-countries.html.

^[2] S. Ouda, M. Ewise, and T. Noreldin, “Projection of Productivity of Cultivated Crops in Rain-Fed Areas in Egypt under Climate Change,” ed. Manuel Tejada Moral, Cogent Food and Agriculture 2, no. 1 (December 31, 2016): 1136256, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2015.1136256.

California produces more than 90% of garlic in the US,^[1] while China is the world’s largest producer globally. Climate change affects garlic cultivation by creating increased heat stress and drought during the growing season, which can affect bulb growth and quality. Growers can adapt to these threats by using heat-tolerant cultivars, drip irrigation, and collecting and storing rainwater for later use. Overall, such adaptations mean that sustainability of garlic farming is at low risk over the long term.^[2]

References

^[1] “Garlic Lovers Unite!” California Farmland Trust, accessed Mar. 12, 2025. https://cafarmtrust.org/garlic-lovers-unite/.

^[2] Climate Change and Garlic Farming Challenges and Adaptation Strategies,” Essential Food and Beverage Industry News for Professionals, Mar. 5, 2025. https://essfeed.com/climate-change-and-garlic-farming-challenges-and-adaptation-strategies-climate-change-and-garlic-farming-challenges-and-adaptation-strategies/.

Ginger is a staple in many Asian and African cuisines and is a popular ingredient in baked goods, beverages and candies. In addition to its culinary uses, ginger has long been recognized as a medicinal plant that can aid in digestion.^[1]

Ginger is a rhizome plant native to humid, shaded tropical habitats,^[2] and the world’s largest producers are India, Nigeria, China, and Indonesia.^[3] In the US, Hawaii is the main ginger-producing state, although most ginger in the US is imported from China.^[4]

Ginger plants are sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and rainfall, as well as extreme weather events associated with climate change.^[5] They are also susceptible to fungal infections that can spread more readily as temperatures rise.^[6]

Researchers and farmers are exploring the effectiveness of crop rotation, cover cropping, early detection tools, and resistant varieties as adaptation strategies for growing ginger sustainably in the face of climate change.

References

[1] “Ginger Benefits,” June 20, 2024, Johns Hopkins Medicine, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/ginger-benefits.

[2] “Ginger Production,” Worldmapper, accessed April 15, 2025, https://worldmapper.org/maps/ginger-production-2016/.

[3] “Ginger, Zingiber Officinale,” Wisconsin Horticulture, accessed April 15, 2025, https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/ginger-zingiber-officinale/.

[4] “Ginger Root Market Summary – Blue Book,” accessed April 15, 2025, https://www.bluebookservices.com/kyc/ginger-root/.

[5] R. Praveen Kumar et al., “Ginger Cultivation in India: Impact of Climate Change and Sustainability Strategies – a Potential Review,” Cogent Food & Agriculture 11, no. 1 (December 31, 2025): 2446653, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2446653.

[6] Rani Yosilia et al., “The Impact of Climate Change in the Spread of Pythium Myriotylum in Ginger: A Critical Review,” E3S Web of Conferences 467 (2023): 01013, https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346701013.

References

^[1] Sara Souther, “Demographic Response of American Ginseng (Panax Quinquefolius L.) to Climate Change,” Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports, January 1, 2011, https://doi.org/10.33915/etd.4793.

China produces about 50% of the world’s kiwis, followed by New Zealand and Italy.^[1] In New Zealand, the loss of winter chill to induce winter dormancy will make a major production area non-viable by the end of the century. Other areas of the country will, however, potentially increase production.^[2] In order to adapt and diversify their incomes, farmers in Texas are turning to golden kiwis due to their propensity for humidity and acidic soil. However, they are running into challenges with unpredictable freezes, which challenge the viability of kiwi production.^[3]

References

^[1] “Kiwi Fruit: Leading Producers Worldwide 2019,” Statista, accessed March 16, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/812434/production-volume-of-leading-kiwi-producing-countries/.

^[2] Andrew Tait et al., “Potential Impact of Climate Change on Hayward Kiwifruit Production Viability in New Zealand,” New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 46, no. 3 (July 3, 2018): 175–97, https://doi.org/10.1080/01140671.2017.1368672.

^[3] Severson, K. (2019, May 1). From Apples to Popcorn, Climate Change Is Altering the Foods America Grows. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/30/dining/farming-climate-change.html.

Haddock is a cold-temperate species primarily found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea.^[1,2] This fish is vulnerable to warming waters, and rising temperatures have led to northward shifts in habitat,^[3] which is making it more difficult to manage haddock fisheries effectively. As the North Sea warms up, there has been a decrease in the mean age of haddock, which has led to smaller haddock due to early maturity of the fish.^[4]

References

^[1] “Haddock (Melanogrammus Aeglefinus) |,” Climefish, accessed June 11, 2025, https://climefish.eu/haddock/.

^[2] I G Jónsdóttir et al., “Spatial Distributional Shifts and Associated Body Condition Changes of Haddock (Melanogrammus Aeglefinus) Following Population Expansion,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 81, no. 3 (April 1, 2024): 587–99, https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsad108.

^[3] Robin McKie, “Cod and Haddock Go North Due to Warming UK Seas, as Foreign Fish Arrive,” The Guardian, September 2, 2017, sec. Environment, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/02/fish-conservation-foreign-species-uk-waters-climate-change.

^[4] A. R. Baudron, C. L. Needle, and C. T. Marshall, “Implications of a Warming North Sea for the Growth of Haddock Melanogrammus Aeglefinus,” Journal of Fish Biology 78, no. 7 (2011): 1874–89, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.02940.x.

The European honey bee is the most economically valuable pollinator of agricultural crops in the world, and it is increasingly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change directly impacts honey bee behavior and physiology. Further, It can alter the quality of the floral environment and increase or reduce colony harvesting capacity and development. Climate change can also change the honey bee distribution ranges and give rise to new competitive relationships among species and races, as well as among their parasites and pathogens.^[1]

References

^[1] Le Conte, Y. and Navajas, M., “Climate Change: Impact on Honey Bee Populations and Diseases,” Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 27, no. 2 (August 1, 2008): 485–97, 499, https://europepmc.org/article/med/18819674.

When hot peppers were grown under potential worst case climate change scenarios, yields were reduced by almost 90% and time to harvest was shortened by about two weeks.^[1] Higher temperatures and levels of C02 can also increase the incidence of disease in hot peppers.^[2] In addition, warmer and dry weather increases the alkaloid concentration in peppers, leading to much hotter jalapenos, especially in growing regions in the Upper Midwest, where the climate is becoming warmer and drier during the growing season.^[3]

References

^[1] Sang Gyu Lee et al., “Impact of Moderate and Extreme Climate Change Scenarios on Growth, Morphological Features, Photosynthesis, and Fruit Production of Hot Pepper,” Ecology and Evolution 8, no. 1 (November 26, 2017): 197–206, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3647.

^[2] Jeong-Wook Shin and Sung-Chul Yun, “Elevated CO2 and Temperature Effects on the Incidence of Four Major Chili Pepper Diseases,” The Plant Pathology Journal 26, no. 2 (2010): 178–84, https://doi.org/10.5423/PPJ.2010.26.2.178.

^[3] Ramde, D. (2012, July 20). Heat, drought make for potent peppers. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/48257563/ns/weather/t/heat-drought-make-potent-peppers/.

Kelp is eaten extensively in Asia and elsewhere around the globe. It is also used commercially as a food additive. However, warming oceans and changes in nutrient levels are harming kelp forests. To make matters worse, with climate change, long-spine sea urchin have expanded into new areas and feed heavily on existing kelp forests. With this southward movement of long-spine urchin populations, 95% of kelp forests have died off in the oceans of Eastern Tasmania. Kelp forests in Northern California have taken similar blows. In addition, disease has killed sea stars, which would normally keep the urchins from overgrazing.^[1]

References

^[1] “As Oceans Warm, the World’s Kelp Forests Begin to Disappear.” Yale E360. Accessed March 24, 2019. https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-oceans-warm-the-worlds-giant-kelp-forests-begin-to-disappear.

The parasitic sea lamprey, which benefits from the warming of the Great Lakes, has been increasing in number and physical size, putting species such as lake trout, walleye, sturgeon, and catfish at increasing risk.^[1] Lake trout are also feeding less in the warming nearshore waters and more in deeper, cooler waters, potentially affecting the entire food web.^[2]

References

^[1] National Wildlife Federation, “Swimming Upstream: Freshwater Fish in a Warming World” 2013, 16, https://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Global-Warming/Reports/NWF-Swimming Upstream-082813-B.ashx.

^[2] Timothy J. Bartley et al., “Food Web Rewiring in a Changing World,” Nature Ecology and Evolution 3, no. 3 (March 2019): 345–54, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0772-3.

The Gulf of Maine is warming very fast and has led to ideal conditions for lobster, now considered the most valuable fishery resource in North America. However, projections for future warming illustrate the possibility that the gulf’s lobster population could fall by 40-62% by 2050 as temperature moves past what is optimal for lobster growth and development. However, through conservation efforts, lobster fisherman are working to protect the resilience of their fisheries.^[1]

References

^[1] Arnault Le Bris et al., “Climate Vulnerability and Resilience in the Most Valuable North American Fishery,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 8 (February 20, 2018): 1831–36, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711122115.

Maple syrup production is increasingly impacted by climate change.^[1] Canada produces most of the world’s supply of maple syrup, but syrup makers in the northeastern and midwestern US also collect sap in late winter and early spring. The flow of maple sap, which is eventually boiled down to create maple syrup, hinges on alternating freezing and thawing cycles at the end of winter.^[2] The geographic range for profitable maple syrup production is expected to shift northward in the coming years. To adapt, producers will need to tap trees earlier in the Northeast.^[3] Warmer March temperatures have already pushed tree-tapping earlier, and warmer spring and summer temperatures lower sugar content the following tapping season. Scientists predict that future sap collection will be about one month earlier than currently and that the best sap flow will be about 250 mi. (400 km) further north by 2100.^[4]

References

^[1] “Changing Climate May Substantially Alter Maple Syrup Production,” https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2012/09/11/changing-climate-may-substantially-alter-maple-syrup-production.

^[2] Christopher B. Skinner, Arthur T. DeGaetano, and Brian F. Chabot, “Implications of Twenty-First Century Climate Change on Northeastern United States Maple Syrup Production: Impacts and Adaptations,” Climatic Change 100, no. 3 (June 1, 2010): 685–702, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-009-9685-0.

^[3] Kristina Stinson and Toni Lynne Morelli, “Climate Effects on the Culture and Ecology of Sugar Maple,” Northeast Climate Adaptation Center, 2018, https://necsc.umass.edu/projects/climate-effects-culture-and-ecology-sugar-maple.

^[4] Joshua M. Rapp et al., “Finding the Sweet Spot: Shifting Optimal Climate for Maple Syrup Production in North America,” Forest Ecology and Management 448 (September 2019): 187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.05.045.

Climate change can affect milk production and the dairy industry by placing heat stress on cows and altering pasture production for animal feed. Put simply, hot cows give less milk. As temperatures rise, cows increase their water intake and reduce their food intake to conserve energy for cooling, which can lead to a decline in milk production.^[1] Scientists have projected that climate impacts could result in the loss of 6.3% of milk production by the end of the 21st century.^[2] Feed for dairy cattle may also be affected by climate change, as higher temperature and drought can affect pasture production and the nutrient value of the food they forage.^[3] To adapt to changing conditions, farmers can provide shade for cows, increase the cooling capacity of barns, and adapt milking times.^[4]

References

^[1] Jiangjing Liu et al., “Effects of Heat Stress on Body Temperature, Milk Production, and Reproduction in Dairy Cows: A Novel Idea for Monitoring and Evaluation of Heat Stress — A Review,” Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 32, no. 9 (September 2019): 1332–39, https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.18.0743.

^[2] “Impacts of Climate Change on Milk Production in the United States,” Climate Impacts Group (blog), accessed May 20, 2025, https://cig.uw.edu/publications/impacts-of-climate-change-on-dairy-production/.

^[3] “Weather and Climate Considerations for Dairy | USDA Climate Hubs,” accessed May 20, 2025, https://www.climatehubs.usda.gov/hubs/northeast/topic/weather-and-climate-considerations-dairy.

^[4] “Heat Stress,” Owl Farm (blog), accessed May 21, 2025, https://owlfarm.nz/owl-farm-kpis/animal-wellbeing/heat-stress-thi-humidity-temperature/.

“Mint” is the umbrella term for plants in the Mentha family that includes, peppermint, spearmint, pineapple mint and others. Globally, about 90% of peppermint is produced in Morocco, where agriculture is considered one of the most climate change vulnerable sectors.^[1,2] In the US, Oregon and Washington produce most of the peppermint. Water availability, rising temperatures and shifts in viable growing regions will likely impact the availability, quality, and cost of mint in coming decades.^[3]

References

^[1] “FAOSTAT,” accessed March 16, 2021, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/.

^[2] “Morocco_NAP_country_briefing_final.Pdf,” accessed March 16, 2021, https://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/resources/morocco_nap_country_briefing_final.pdf.

^[3] John Sterman, “A Project for Colgate-Palmolive in Partnership with MIT Sloan Sustainability Lab,” n.d., 28.

Mushrooms are eaten across the globe in dishes like salads, stews, stir-fries and soups. Mushrooms bring a distinctive umami to dishes, which make them popular as a meat alternative. In addition to their culinary uses, mushrooms’ fiber and nutrient content carry a range of health benefits.^[1]

China produces 93% of the world’s mushrooms, followed by Japan, the US and Poland.^[2] Pennsylvania, California, and New Jersey are chief producers in the US, where white or button mushrooms are the most common varieties. Brown mushrooms like shiitake, cremini and portobello are increasingly popular in the US.^[3]

Mushrooms grow above ground on decaying organic matter in moist, shady areas, and they are often cultivated in controlled indoor environments.^[3] Cultivated mushrooms producers face climate change-related challenges, as extreme rainfall events can soak the substrate on which mushrooms are grown, which in turn lowers yields and increases costs for growers.^[4]

Wild mushrooms are more susceptible to climate change impacts because high temperature can delay fruiting,^[5] while droughts can reduce biomass^[6] and excessive rain can destroy habitats.^[7] As a result, wild mushroom foraging may decline.

Researchers have studied the possibility of cultivating mushrooms alongside trees to produce food while keeping forests intact, thus mitigating climate change.^[8]

References

^[1] “Mushrooms Make Healthy Meal Magic,” Mayo Clinic Health System, accessed May 6, 2025, https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/mushrooms-make-healthy-meal-magic.

^[2] “Which Country Produces the Most Mushrooms?,” accessed May 6, 2025, https://www.helgilibrary.com/charts/which-country-produces-the-most-mushrooms.

^[3]  “How Mushrooms Grow,” accessed April 30, 2025, https://www.americanmushroom.org/industry-resources/how-mushrooms-grow/.

^[4] “American Mushroom Institute – Mushroom Producers Face Rising Costs,” accessed April 30, 2025, https://www.americanmushroom.org/news/2019/08/15/ami/mushroom-producers-face-rising-costs/.

^[5] Håvard Kauserud et al., “Mushroom Fruiting and Climate Change,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 10 (March 11, 2008): 3811–14, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709037105.

^[6] Petr Procházka et al., “Climatic Factors Affecting Wild Mushroom Foraging in Central Europe,” Forests 14, no. 2 (February 2023): 382, https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020382.

^[7] “The Impact of Climate Change on Mushroom Habitats – Terrashroom,” accessed May 6, 2025, https://terrashroom.io/blogs/about-mushrooms-3/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-mushroom-habitats.

^[8] “Growing Mushrooms alongside Trees Could Feed Millions and Mitigate Effects of Climate Change, Research Finds | About,” University of Stirling, March 14, 2023, https://www.stir.ac.uk/news/2023/march-2023-news/growing-mushrooms-alongside-trees-could-feed-millions-and-mitigate-effects-of-climate-change-research-finds/.

Mussels are at increasing risk from ocean acidification and increasing water temperatures.^[1] An extreme example of the impact of how higher water temperatures impact mussels occurred along the Pacific Coast in 2019. Because of higher water temperatures mussels populations lost their ability to form strong anchor points, making them more susceptible to being dislodged by waves and dying.^[2]

References

^[1] Susan C. Fitzer et al., “Ocean Acidification and Temperature Increase Impact Mussel Shell Shape and Thickness: Problematic for Protection?,” Ecology and Evolution 5, no. 21 (November 2015): 4875–84, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1756.

^[2] “Mussels Cooked to Death in Their Shells in Unusual Heat on Northern California Shore | HuffPost,” accessed March 16, 2021, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mussels-cooked-in-california-heat-bodega-climate-change_n_5d19669ae4b082e5536b7195.

Canada is a major producer of mustard, which is native to temperate regions of Europe,^[1] while France produces specialty mustards like Dijon. Both regions have been affected by climate change in ways that are threatening mustard harvests, leading to price increases and shortages.

Higher temperatures and erratic rainfall both have an adverse effect on mustard plants.^[2] In recent years, heat waves and drought in Canada created a shortage.^[3] Burgundy, France, the home of Dijon mustard, has also seen harvest declines of up to 50% due to wet winters and unseasonably early season temperature fluctuations.^[4]

References

^[1] “Mustard,” Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, accessed June 11, 2025, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/mustard.

^[2] Ess Team, “How Climate Change Is Impacting Mustard Seed Production for Mustard Manufacturers,” EssFeed, March 19, 2025, https://essfeed.com/how-climate-change-is-impacting-mustard-seed-production-for-mustard-manufacturers-how-climate-change-is-impacting-mustard-seed-production-for-mustard-manufacturers/.

^[3] “US Could Run out of Mustard Because of Climate Change,” The Independent, June 22, 2022, https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/mustard-shortage-us-seed-b2106958.html.

^[4] Robyn Wilson, “French Dijon Mustard Supply Hit by Climate and Rising Costs, Say Producers,” The Guardian, May 19, 2022, sec. Business, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/may/19/french-dijon-mustard-supply-hit-by-climate-and-rising-costs-say-producers.

Nutmeg comes primarily from Indonesia, Guatemala, and India.^[1] It is particularly vulnerable to climate change, as the crop takes 4-6 years to reach the maturity and the tree’s shallow roots are easily uprooted in increasingly frequent severe weather events. For example, Little Grenada (Spice Island), was hit by Hurricanes Ivan and Emily destroying 555,000 trees and dramatically reducing production. Farmers are minimizing risks by planting shelter belts in the path of damaging winds and planting other crops among the nutmeg trees to protect the soil and tree roots.^[2]

References

^[1] “FAOSTAT,” accessed March 16, 2021, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/.

^[2] Daphne Ewing-Chow, “Nutmeg: Grenada’s ‘Black Gold’ Is On The Cusp Of Resurgence,” Forbes, accessed March 16, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/daphneewingchow/2020/02/23/nutmeg-grenadas-black-gold-is-on-the-cusp-of-resurgence/.

Oats are generally grown in cooler climates, and Canada is a top global producer exporting to the US.^[1] Within the US, oat production is concentrated in north-central states.^[2]

Increasing temperatures and CO2 combined with drought stress can make oats more susceptible to fungal contamination that can produce mycotoxins.^[3,4] When consumed, mycotoxins pose a serious risk to human health.^[5]

References

^[1] “Oat Production,” Worldmapper (blog), accessed June 25, 2025, https://worldmapper.org/maps/oat-production-2016/.

^[2] Iowa Farm Bureau, “Oats in Iowa,” October 11, 2022, https://www.iowafarmbureau.com/Article/Oats-in-Iowa.

^[3] “Climate Change and Its Impact on Oats,” January 3, 2019, https://www.cranfield.ac.uk/press/news-2019/climate-change-and–its-impact-on-oats.

^[4] Carol Verheecke-Vaessen et al., “Interacting Climate Change Environmental Factors Effects on Fusarium Langsethiae Growth, Expression of Tri Genes and T-2/HT-2 Mycotoxin Production on Oat-Based Media and in Stored Oats,” Fungal Biology, The Fungal Threat to Food Security, 123, no. 8 (August 1, 2019): 618–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2019.04.008.

^[5] “Impact of Mycotoxins on Human Health | SpringerLink,” January 1, 2016, https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-19456-1_21-1.

Spain is world’s largest producer of olives followed by Italy and Greece.^[1] However summers in the Mediterranean are getting hotter and drier, with warm temperatures extending into spring and fall. The need for irrigation is expected to increase 18% over the region.^[2] While olives can tolerate periods without water, extended droughts can decrease vegetative growth, yield, olive size, and the oil content of the fruit. In Spain, shifts in weather patterns caused by climate change are resulting in more freeze injury to the fruit and subsequently a “frostbitten flavor,” now one of the most common defects in olive oil quality.^[3] Droughts during 2012 and 2014 stressed the trees in Andalusia—the region of Spain responsible for nearly a third of the world’s production.^[4]

References

^[1] European Commission, “Olives by Production,” 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/main/data/database.

^[2] Lazar Tanasijevic et al., “Impacts of Climate Change on Olive Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements in the Mediterranean Region,” Agricultural Water Management 144 (October 1, 2014): 54–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.05.019.

^[3] Inmaculada Romero et al., “Study of Volatile Compounds of Virgin Olive Oils with ‘Frostbitten Olives’ Sensory Defect,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65, no. 21 (May 31, 2017), 4314, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00712.

^[4] Rafaela Dios-Palomares and José M. Martínez-Paz, “Technical, Quality and Environmental Efficiency of the Olive Oil Industry,” Food Policy 36, no. 4 (August 1, 2011), 526, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2011.04.001.
.

Onions come in many varieties and are used in most cuisines worldwide. China, India and the US are the largest producers globally,^[1] and the US is the world’s largest importer of onions (largely from Mexico and Canada).^[2]

Heat associated with climate change can stress onion crops, reducing bulb size and diminishing yields, and creating conditions where pests can thrive.^[3] Onion crops are also sensitive to drought.^[4] In 2020, Idaho onion growers saw a 15-20% loss in onion production due to higher-than-average temperatures combined with reduced snowmelt and rain.^[5]

References

^[1] Oishimaya Sen Nag in Economics, “The Top Onion Producing Countries In The World,” WorldAtlas, August 1, 2017, https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-top-onion-producing-countries-in-the-world.html.

^[2] Ess Team, “The Top 10 Onion Importing Countries in the World,” EssFeed (blog), April 16, 2025, https://essfeed.com/the-top-10-onion-importing-countries-in-the-world-the-top-10-onion-importing-countries-in-the-world/.

^[3] “The Impact of Heatwaves on Onion Farming,” Onion World (blog), July 18, 2024, https://onionworld.net/2024/07/18/the-impact-of-heatwaves-on-onion-farming/.

^[4] Welson Lima Simões et al., “Water-Use Efficiency and Onion Quality in Future Climate Scenarios,” Pesquisa Agropecuária Tropical 52 (2022), https://www.redalyc.org/journal/2530/253070366030/html/.

^[5] “Fewer Crops—like Onions: How Climate Change Has Affected Idaho,” Stacker, accessed June 12, 2025, https://stacker.com/stories/idaho/fewer-crops-onions-how-climate-change-has-affected-idaho.

Increasing acidic conditions interfere with the shell formation of young oysters in hatcheries and elsewhere. This finding has clear implications for the oyster farming industry, which is worth $273 million along the West Coast alone. Hatcheries have ameliorated the problem by manipulating water chemistry and continue to supply West Coast farms, but many see the threat as another canary in the coal mine for marine life.^[1] In addition, Dermo disease, a plague for oyster populations, has spread northward along the North American east coast, thanks to climate change.^[2]

References

^[1] Doney, et al., 2014: Ch. 24: Oceans and Marine Resources. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 562, doi:10.7930/ J0RF5RZW, http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/regions/oceans.

^[2] David Bushek and Susan E. Ford, “Anthropogenic Impacts on an Oyster Metapopulation: Pathogen Introduction, Climate Change and Responses to Natural Selection,” Elem Sci Anth 4, no. 0 (August 18, 2016): 000119, 1, https://doi.org/10.12952/journal.elementa.000119.

Climate change is increasingly challenging US peach production. Warm weather in the winter of 2017 destroyed almost 85% of Georgia’s peach crop, due to inadequate chill hours necessary for fruit development. Late frosts are also detrimental to peach production and are becoming more commonplace.^[1]

References

^[1] Meera Subramanian, “In Georgia’s Peach Orchards, Warm Winters Raise Specter of Climate Change,” Inside Climate News (blog), August 31, 2017, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/31082017/climate-change-georgia-peach-harvest-warm-weather-crop-risk-farmers/.

Peanuts are an affordable, versatile source of protein. Although China is the world’s largest peanut producer, the US gets most of its peanuts from within its own borders, with Georgia leading the industry.^[1]

Peanuts are annual legumes that develop and ripen below the soil surface. The plants are sensitive to excessive temperatures, which can reduce yields due to smaller seeds and fewer seed pods.^[2] High heat and drought can stress plants and cause toxic mold to contaminate peanut crops.^[3] In 2011, peanut prices rose sharply due to a drought that struck several peanut-producing states.^[4] In 2019, flash flooding caused a loss of 10-20% of the peanut crop in Alabama.^[5]

References

^[1] Clare Mulroy, “How Do Peanuts Grow? Here’s Where They Come from and How They Go from Soil to Shelf.,” USA TODAY, March 30, 2023, https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/2023/03/30/where-do-peanuts-come-from/11420760002/.

^[2] OAR US EPA, “Climate Change Connections: Alabama (Peanuts),” Overviews and Factsheets, September 10, 2024, https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-connections-alabama-peanuts.

^[3] “Climate & Peanut Butter | NOAA Climate.Gov,” November 1, 2012, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-peanut-butter.

^[4] “Climate & Peanut Butter | NOAA Climate.Gov.”

^[5] US EPA, “Climate Change Connections.”

California, Oregon and Washington are the largest pear-producing states in the US, while Mexico and Canada are the country’s top sources of imported pears.^[1]

Rising temperatures associated with climate change can cause sunburn in pears, which diminishes fruit size, quality, and taste.^[2] Scientific models project that warmer winters in some regions will reduce the duration of chill periods that pear trees need to flower properly, which could reduce yield.^[3] An experiment simulating pears grown under conditions in the year 2040 showed that pears grown in higher temperature conditions tended to be less firm and higher in sugar, which would decrease the survival of stored fruit.^[4]

References

^[1] Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, “Pears,” April 2024, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/pears.

^[2] Wand, S.J.E., Steyn, W.J. and Theron, K.I., “Vulnerability and Impact of Climate Change on Pear Production in South Africa,” ISHS Acta Horticulturae 800, 2008, https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2008.800.31.

^[3] Gilad Gabay and Moshe A. Flaishman, “Genetic and Molecular Regulation of Chilling Requirements in Pear: Breeding for Climate Change Resilience,” Frontiers in Plant Science 15 (April 26, 2024): 1347527, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1347527.

^[4] Matthew Nash, “Forbidden Fruit? The Pears of the Future Set to Defy Climate Change,” CGTN, October 6, 2024, https://newseu.cgtn.com/news/2024-10-06/Forbidden-fruit-The-pears-of-the-future-set-to-defy-climate-change-1xa9J2VKlu8/index.html.

Pineapple is a tropical fruit grown primarily in Central and South America and Southeast Asia.^[1] Most pineapple consumed in the US is imported from Central America or Equador.^[2]

Rising temperatures and fluctuating rainfall patterns associated with climate change can threaten pineapple production. Temperatures above 90 degrees F can cause misshapen fruits or plant mortality, while intense solar radiation reduces the quality of fruit. In addition, excessive rainfall and humidity can increase the incidence of pests and disease.^[3] Pineapple producers can adapt to these threats with strategies such as improving drainage and taking steps to protect plants from sun damage.

References

^[1] “Pineapple Production,” Worldmapper (blog), accessed June 30, 2025, https://worldmapper.org/maps/pineapple-production-2016/.

^[2] “Pineapple Market Summary,” Blue Book (blog), accessed June 30, 2025, https://www.bluebookservices.com/kyc/pineapple/.

^[3] “Ripe for Change: Adapting Pineapple Production to a Changing Climate” Sustainable Tropical Fruits No. 5 (FAO, July 23, 2023), https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7097en.

Pine nuts, the edible seeds of various types of pine trees, are produced primarily in China, Russia and Afganistan. Although pinyon pine nuts are grown in the southwestern US, they are more expensive to harvest than pine nuts grown in China, which has the advantage of cheaper labor.^[1]

Rising temperatures associated with climate change can disrupt the reproductive cycle of pinyon trees and could potentially lead to localized extinctions.^[2] Increased drought frequency and prolonged droughts can stress the trees, making them more vulnerable to pests and diseases.^[3] In China, climate change could potentially expand the habitats suitable for pine nut production.^[4]

References

^[1] Dan Nosowitz, “Why Does the USA Import Pine Nuts When We Have Our Own?,” Modern Farmer (blog), June 19, 2017, https://modernfarmer.com/2017/06/usa-import-pine-nuts/.

^[2] Michael Price, “Can Pinyon Pines Survive Climate Change?,” June 27, 2018, https://www.sdsu.edu/news/2018/06/can-pinyon-pines-survive-climate-change-.aspx.

^[3] João A. Freire, Gonçalo C. Rodrigues, and Margarida Tomé, “Climate Change Impacts on Pinus Pinea L. Silvicultural System for Cone Production and Ways to Contour Those Impacts: A Review Complemented with Data from Permanent Plots,” Forests 10, no. 2 (February 2019): 169, https://doi.org/10.3390/f10020169.

^[4] Yu Liu and Lin Chen, “Predicting the Impact of Climate Change on Corylus Species Distribution in China: Integrating Climatic, Topographic, and Anthropogenic Factors,” Ecology and Evolution 14, no. 11 (November 3, 2024): e70528, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.70528.

In the Bering Sea, one of the most productive fishing regions in the world, warming conditions are causing the sea ice to retreat. Over 40% of the US annual fish catch is from the Bering Sea—mainly pollock used in fish products from fish sticks to imitation crab. Retreating Arctic Sea ice threatens the food supply of young pollock, which feed on the algae that grows under the ice. As the sea ice retreats young pollock have less algae to feed on, their cold habitat is smaller, and they are preyed upon more by older, cannibalistic pollock. These factors threaten the overall stock of pollock, which is worth over $1 billion annually.^[1]

References

^[1] Laurel Sheufelt, “The Population of Pollock Under Climate Change as Determined by Age, Distribution, and Prey Energy Content,” ScienceBuzz (blog), August 21, 2017, https://www.sciencebuzz.com/the-population-of-pollock-under-climate-change-as-determined-by-age-distribution-and-prey-energy-content/.

Potatoes are the most important non-grain crop globally. Nighttime temperatures are particularly important for potatoes: if they are too warm, tuber growth declines and this increase alone could undermine global potato production.^[1] Under a business-as-usual scenario researchers estimate up to 95% of English and Welsh potato-growing land currently dependent on rainfall will become unsuitable for production by 2050 because of increasingly dry conditions.^[2] With irrigation, other areas could remain productive but will be constrained by limited access to that water.^[3] Potato yields in eastern Washington State could drop as much as 22% by 2080 due to rising temperatures.^[4]

References

^[1] “Potato Faces Up to Climate Change Challenges.” International Potato Center (blog), April 2, 2013. https://cipotato.org/blog/potato-faces-up-to-climate-change-challenges/.

^[2] Andre Daccache et al., “Climate Change and Land Suitability for Potato Production in England and Wales: Impacts and Adaptation,” 2012, 161,https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859611000839.

^[3] Keith Weatherhead and Nicholas Howden, “The Relationship between Land Use and Surface Water Resources in the UK,” Land Use Policy 26 (December 1, 2009), 249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.08.007.

^[4] Claudio O. Stöckle et al., “Assessment of Climate Change Impact on Eastern Washington Agriculture,” Climatic Change 102, no. 1 (September 1, 2010): 87, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9851-4.

In China, severe storms and hail damaged pumpkin crops in May and June 2024. In addition, recent high temperatures and water shortages in the northwest and floods in the northeast of China have further impacted pumpkin harvest and yield.^[4]

In the US, Illinois, Indiana and California are the largest pumpkin-growing states. In Morton, IL, a major pumpkin producer, heavy rain storms in June 2015 resulted in a 50% decrease in yields for Libby’s Pumpkin, a major supplier of canned pumpkin.^[5]

References

^[1] “Cucurbita Pepo L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science,” Plants of the World Online, accessed May 27, 2025, http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:292416-1.

^[2] “Who Grows The Most Pumpkins? 05/27/2025,” March 14, 2024, https://www.freightcenter.com/who-grows-the-most-pumpkins/.

^[3] Florence Fabricant, “Pumpkin Seeds, Made in America,” The New York Times, October 14, 2019, sec. Food, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/14/dining/pumpkin-seeds-america.html.

^[4] Elizabeth Gilbert, “New Pumpkin Seed Harvest in China Faces Challenges,” Commodity Board Europe GmbH (blog), July 3, 2024, https://commodity-board.com/new-pumpkin-seed-harvest-in-china-faces-challenges-from-weather-and-market-conditions/.

^[5] “Climate & Pumpkins | NOAA Climate.Gov,” October 22, 2015, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-pumpkins.

Almost all quinoa is produced in Peru and Bolivia.^[1] It is resilient to climate change, due to its adaptation to harsh bioclimatic conditions in its growing regions in the Andes, especially in regard to water shortages and high soil salinity.^[2]

References

^[1] “Quinoa Production Worldwide by Country, 2019,” Statista, accessed March 17, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/486460/global-quinoa-production-by-country/.

^[2] Michael Broberg Palmgren, “Quinoa is a super crop that can resist future climate change,” May 24, 2020, https://sciencenordic.com/a/1687200.

Raspberry is a sweet summertime fruit that is consumed whole and used in jams, baked goods and beverages. This nutrient-dense “superfood” is popular across the globe. Russia, Mexico, Serbia, Poland and the US are the world’s largest raspberry producers.^[1] During warm months, California and Washington meet most of the US demand, but in cooler months the majority of raspberries are imported from Mexico.^[2]

Drought and heat stress can affect the fruit quality of raspberry crops.^[3,4] Increased heat during the growing season has been shown to diminish the nutritional value of some varieties of raspberry.^[5]

References

^[1] “Which Country Produces the Most Raspberries?” accessed April 22, 2025, https://www.helgilibrary.com/charts/which-country-produces-the-most-raspberries.

^[2] “Raspberries | Agricultural Marketing Resource Center,” accessed April 22, 2025, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/raspberries.

^[3] “Climate Change Affects Strawberry and Raspberry Production in the Zamora Valley,” accessed April 22, 2025, https://fructidor.com/es/news/news-detail/c5ca55c2-508f-462c-9540-7d5987900559.

^[4] C. Contreras et al., “Is the Climate Change Affecting Fruit Quality? A Raspberry Study of White Drupelet Disorder from South America,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 1396 (June 2024): 449–56, https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2024.1396.59.

^[5] Francisca Aguilar et al., “Increased Temperature Effects During Fruit Growth and Maturation on the Fruit Quality, Sensory and Antioxidant Properties of Raspberry (Rubus Idaeus L.) Cv. Heritage,” Foods 14, no. 7 (January 2025): 1201, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14071201.

Rice is a very important food for over three billion people globally.^[1] However, the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that, unless agricultural practices improve significantly, water scarcity and increased temperatures may cause rice yields in India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam to drop 50% by 2100.^[2]

Yields decline with higher nighttime temperatures, especially during the reproductive phase of the plant.[3] In coastal regions, saltwater intrusion as sea levels rise increasingly threatens rice production. Scientists estimate that in some coastal areas of Bangladesh, rice yields will decline by 15% by 2050 due to soil salinity.^[4] The increase in occurrence of droughts also affects rice production. The situation is especially acute in California, where severe droughts result in water shortages. During California’s 2011-2014 drought, thousands of acres of land normally in rice production were left fallow.^[5]

Rice farming also contributes significantly to climate change. The microbes in rice paddies’ anaerobic soils decompose organic matter and produce about 9% of global anthropogenic methane emissions.^[6] Studies also showed decreases in B vitamins of 17-30% with increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere expected in the future.^[7]

References

Rye is a grain used in making bread, beer and rye whiskey. It is a cool season crop primarily grown in eastern and northern Europe, as well as the north central US and Canada.^[1]

The impact of climate change on rye is complex. Some studies suggest that higher winter temperatures and an earlier start to the growing season could have a positive effect on rye yield and biomass.^[2] However, studies also show that drought, heat stress and extreme weather events can reduce yields and the nutritional quality of rye.^[3] Flooding from melting snow can increase the presence of mold that affects the quality of rye crops.^[4] Furthermore, increases in atmospheric ozone associated with urban pollution may increase the allergen content of rye pollen, which may make allergies worse for those who suffer from allergies.^[5]

References

^[1] R Gultig, “The World’s Largest Rye Producers: Leading Countries in Rye Cultivation,” EssFeed (blog), January 26, 2025, https://essfeed.com/the-worlds-largest-rye-producers-leading-countries-in-rye-cultivation/.

^[2] F. -M Chmielewski and W Köhn, “Impact of Weather on Yield Components of Winter Rye over 30 Years,” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 102, no. 4 (May 24, 2000): 253–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1923(00)00125-8.

^[3] Abu Zar Ghafoor et al., “Climate Change and Rye ( Secale Cereale L.) Production: Challenges, Opportunities and Adaptations,” Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science 210, no. 4 (August 2024): e12725, https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12725.

^[4] E. Pociecha et al., “Mechanisms Involved in the Regulation of Photosynthetic Efficiency and Carbohydrate Partitioning in Response to Low- and High-Temperature Flooding Triggered in Winter Rye (Secale Cereale) Lines with Distinct Pink Snow Mold Resistances,” Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 104 (July 1, 2016): 45–53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.03.016.

^[5] Julia Eckl-Dorna et al., “Exposure of Rye (Secale Cereale) Cultivars to Elevated Ozone Levels Increases the Allergen Content in Pollen,” Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 126, no. 6 (December 1, 2010): 1315–17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.06.012.

Almost all saffron comes from Iran, and research there indicates that production may decline by over 30% by late in the century due to climate change.^[1,2] In India’s Kashmir Valley changes in rainfall patterns and increasing incidence of drought have put this region of saffron production in rapid decline. Yields are dropping and so is the quality of this spice, jeopardizing the livelihoods of thousands of farmers and businesspeople.^[3]

References

^[1] “Saffron: Leading Producers Worldwide 2019,” Statista, accessed March 17, 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1135621/leading-saffron-producers-worldwide/.

^[2] Saeedeh Kouzegaran et al., “Future Projection of the Effects of Climate Change on Saffron Yield and Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Cultivation by Incorporating the Effect of Extreme Climate Indices,” Theoretical and Applied Climatology 141, no. 3 (August 1, 2020): 1109–18, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-020-03241-0.

^[3] Amjad M. Husaini, “Challenges of Climate Change,” GM Crops and Food 5, no. 2 (April 11, 2014), https://doi.org/10.4161/gmcr.29436.

Salmon, a cold-water fish found in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, is an excellent source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids.^[1] Salmon species can be farmed or caught wild, but wild Atlantic salmon is endangered, so Atlantic salmon is generally farmed while wild-caught salmon is from the Pacific.^[2]

Climate change is affecting both the freshwater and marine habitats of wild salmon, which inhabit each environment at different life stages. Pacific salmon face higher water temperatures, droughts, and floods that can block migrations, increase requirements for food, and create environmental stresses that affect their health and breeding.^[3]

Farmed salmon also face warming ocean temperatures, but this is exacerbated by the fact that they cannot migrate to cooler waters. In 2019, an extended period of warm surface water temperatures off the coast of New Foundland led to the death of 2.6 million farmed salmon.^[4]

References

^[1] Pamela D Tom and Paul G Olin, “Farmed Or Wild? Both Types of Salmon Taste Good and Are Good for You,” Global Aquaculture Advocate, 2010, https://seafood.oregonstate.edu/sites/agscid7/files/snic/farmed-or-wild-both-types-of-salmon-taste-good-and-are-good-for-you.pdf.

^[2] “Where Does Salmon Come From?” Superior Fresh, November 1, 2019, https://www.superiorfresh.com/blog-reference/whats-the-story-behind-your-supermarket-salmon.

^[3] Fisheries and Oceans Canada Government of Canada, “Extreme Environmental Impacts on Pacific Salmon | Pacific Region | Fisheries and Oceans Canada,” September 26, 2023, https://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pacific-smon-pacifique/environmental-impacts-environnementaux-eng.html.

^[4] Catherine Collins and Douglas Frantz, “Warming Waters Challenge Atlantic Salmon, Both Wild and Farmed,” Yale Environment 360, September 15, 2022, https://e360.yale.edu/features/salmon-farming-climate-change.

Sardines are small, oily, herring-like fish found in oceans worldwide.^[1] Historically, both coasts of the US produced sardines, but overfishing led to population crashes that decimated the US industry.^[2,3] Today, the US is a leading importer of sardines from China, Mexico and Vietnam.^[4]

Warming ocean waters associated with climate change may lead to a northward shift in sardine habitats.^[5] In addition, warming waters cause changes in communities of phytoplankton, a major food source for sardines. As a result, sardines may shift to a filter-feeding approach that is less efficient for the fish and can cause them to consume greater amounts of microplastics.^[6]

References

^[1] “Sardine | Health Benefits, Types & Recipes | Britannica,” accessed July 9, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/animal/sardine.

^[2] “So Long Sardines: America’s Last Cannery Closing – CBS News,” April 14, 2010, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/so-long-sardines-americas-last-cannery-closing/.

^[3] “The Modern Day Pacific Sardine Collapse: How to Prevent a Future Crisis,” Oceana USA (blog), accessed July 9, 2025, https://usa.oceana.org/responsible-fishing-modern-day-pacific-sardine-collapse-how-prevent-future-crisis/.

^[4] “Sardine Imports in United States – Volza,” accessed July 9, 2025, https://www.volza.com/ogimages/import/s/sardine-import-in-united-states-import-shipment.svg.

^[5] Jerome Fiechter et al., “Projected Shifts in 21st Century Sardine Distribution and Catch in the California Current,” Frontiers in Marine Science 8 (July 19, 2021), https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.685241.

^[6] Oriol Rodriguez-Romeu et al., “Sardines in Hot Water: Unravelling Plastic Fibre Ingestion and Feeding Behaviour Effects,” Environmental Pollution 363 (December 15, 2024): 125035, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.125035.

Changes in the quality of stream water used for Scotch, such as during droughts, will likely affect the unique characteristics of some brands.^[1] The age old process of making Scotch is temperature dependent and will also be changing.^[2] Rising temperatures will permit the “angel” (evaporation process) to take a larger share, more than the historic average of 2%, which translates currently to about 29 million gal. (110 million L) per year.^[3]

References

^[1] Simon Roach, “Scotch on the Rocks: Distilleries Fear Climate Crisis Will Endanger Whisky Production,” The Guardian, June 2, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/jun/02/scotland-whisky-climate-crisis-heatwave-distilleries-halt-production.

^[2] L. Brandon, “Hot Scotch: The Impact of Climate Change on Your Whisky,” The Whiskey Wash,” June 26, 2017, https://thewhiskeywash.com/lifestyle/hot-scotch-impact-climate-change-whisky/.

^[3] Nick Hines, “The Amount of Scotch Lost to the Angel’s Share Every Year Is Staggering,” VinePair (blog), April 11, 2017, https://vinepair.com/articles/what-is-angels-share-scotch/.

Increasing ocean temperatures result in fish populations moving to cooler waters. By shifting their territories to new fishing grounds, black sea bass, and other species have already triggered “fish wars,” which are expected to increase as fish populations continue to relocate.^[1]

References

^[1] Craig Welch, “Climate Change May Spark Global ‘Fish Wars’” (video), National Geographic News, June 14, 2018, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/06/climate-change-drives-fish-wars-science-environment/.

The US has a valuable sea scallop fishery along its New England and Mid-Atlantic coastlines^[1] and also imports scallops from Canada, Japan, Argentina, Peru and China.^[2]

As oceans absorb increased carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, they become more acidic. When combined with rising ocean temperatures, this acidification poses a threat to scallop fisheries. Scallop shells can begin to dissolve under acidic conditions, which requires the organisms to expend more energy maintaining their shells, leaving less energy for growth and reproduction.^[3,4]

Scientists are studying whether scallop farming may offer a way to adapt by controlling seawater chemistry in hatcheries until juvenile scallops have developed beyond their most vulnerable stages.^[5]

References

^[1] NOAA Fisheries, “Atlantic Sea Scallop | NOAA Fisheries,” NOAA, July 10, 2025, New England/Mid-Atlantic, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-sea-scallop.

^[2] “Story for the US Scallop Market in 2025 Will Be ‘Optionality’,” Seafood Source, January 29, 2025, https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/story-for-the-us-scallop-market-in-2025-will-be-optionality.

^[3] NOAA Fisheries, “Investigating the Effects of Ocean Acidification on Atlantic Sea Scallops | NOAA Fisheries,” NOAA, October 23, 2023, New England/Mid-Atlantic, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/investigating-effects-ocean-acidification-atlantic-sea-scallops.

^[4] Emilien Pousse et al., “Juvenile Atlantic Sea Scallop, Placopecten Magellanicus, Energetic Response to Increased Carbon Dioxide and Temperature Changes,” PLOS Climate 2, no. 2 (2023): e0000142, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000142.

^[5] “New Study Suggests Acidification from Climate Change Could Harm Sea Scallop Populations,” Press Herald, March 23, 2023, https://www.pressherald.com/2023/03/22/newly-published-study-shows-maine-scallop-industry-could-be-in-danger/.

Sesame plants are used to make a variety of flavorful foods, including sesame oil, sesame paste (tahini), and sesame seeds. India, Myanmar and Sudan are the world’s leading sesame producers,^[1] and the US imports most of its sesame from India, China, and Pakistan.^[2]

Sesame plants are sensitive to water, and erratic precipitation— including drought and heavy rainfall — can negatively impact plants during flowering and seed formation.^[3,4] In addition, high temperatures can negatively affect pollination, leading to fewer seeds per pod and lower overall yields.^[5] These factors may lead to reduced harvests and increased prices.

References

^[1] Kodgav, “The 3 Main Regions Where Sesame Seeds Come From,” March 12, 2021, https://kodgav.co.uk/en-gb/blog/the-three-main-regions-where-sesame-seeds-come-from.

^[2] “Sesame Seeds Imports in United States – Volza,” accessed July 1, 2025, https://www.volza.com/p/sesame-seeds/import/import-in-united-states/.

^[3] Majestic Spice, “Sesame Yields at Risk from Weather and Smaller Crops,” Majestic Spice, October 8, 2024, https://www.majesticspice.com/sesame-yields-at-risk-from-weather-and-smaller-crops/.

^[4] Xue Wang et al., “Assessing Changes in Climatic Suitability for Sesame Cultivation in China (1978–2019) Based on Fuzzy Mathematics,” Agronomy 14, no. 3 (March 2024): 631, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030631.

^[5] Veerral Agro Tech, “Impact of Climate Change on Sesame Exporter and Production,” Kisan Agro, October 13, 2023, https://www.viralspices.com/blog/impact-of-climate-change-on-sesame-exporter-and-production.

Soybeans, a major source of protein in many diets, are used to produce tofu, soy sauce, soy milk, soybean oil, edamame and tempeh. Brazil is the world’s largest producer of soybeans, followed by the US, where they are primarily grown in the Midwest.^[1,2]

Climate change impacts on soybean production could vary depending on the region where the crop is grown. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns have been projected to reduce yields in some areas.^[3] In recent years, soybean production has increased in northern states like Minnesota, while yields have decreased in Missouri due to a rise in average temperatures during the growing season.^[4] Drying of the atmosphere — a threat to many plants — may actually spur soybean plants to fix more nitrogen from the soil, which could increase productivity as long as the crop is well irrigated.^[5] Higher carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may affect soy’s nutritional quality by decreasing the zinc and iron in the crop, but higher temperatures may offset that effect by increasing the mineral content of the crop.^[6]

References

^[1] “Soybeans | USDA Foreign Agricultural Service,” accessed June 29, 2025, https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/production/commodity/2222000.

^[2] “US Soybean Production by State: Ranking the Top 11,” May 5, 2021, https://www.cropprophet.com/soybean-production-by-state-top-11/.

^[3] Elvis F. Elli et al., “Climate Change and Management Impacts on Soybean N Fixation, Soil N Mineralization, N2O Emissions, and Seed Yield,” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (April 27, 2022), https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.849896.

^[4] University of Nebraska-Lincoln Office of Research and Innovation, “Climate Change May Hinder Soybean Yields,” February 4, 2015, https://research.unl.edu/blog/climate-change-may-hinder-soybean-yields-3/.

^[5] “Soybean Crops Can Take Advantage of Climate Change to Increase Productivity,” University of Minnesota, May 1, 2023, https://twin-cities.umn.edu/news-events/soybean-crops-can-take-advantage-climate-change-increase-productivity.

^[6] Iris H. Köhler et al., “Increased Temperatures May Safeguard the Nutritional Quality of Crops under Future Elevated CO2 Concentrations,” The Plant Journal 97, no. 5 (2019): 872–86, https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.14166.

Spinach, a staple of salads, is one of the most nutrient dense foods. The majority of fresh market spinach in the US is grown in California, Arizona, New Jersey and Texas.^[1]

As a cool-weather crop, spinach is susceptible to rising temperatures, which can inhibit germination of seedlings. Excessive humidity and high temperatures can also raise the risk of diseases that can reduce spinach yields. The nutritional value of spinach may be affected by climate change, as the lutein and beta carotene content of spinach leaves can diminish as temperatures rise.^[2] One study found that future climate conditions could potentially increase concentrations of the toxic metal cadmium in spinach.^[3]

References

^[1] Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, “Spinach,” May 2024, https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/spinach.

^[2] Menka Pathak et al., “Impact of Climate Change on Leafy and Salad Vegetables Production,” in Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a Changing Climate Vol. 2, ed. Shashank Shekhar Solankey and Meenakshi Kumari (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023), 109–26, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20840-9_5.

^[3] Aleksandra Pieńkowska et al, “Climate Change-Induced Cadmium Accumulation in Spinach,” European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2025 (Vienna, Austria, March 15, 2025), https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu25-13116.

Climate change is likely to have significant impacts on medicinal herbs from quality to where they grow. Field studies in the UK determined that increasing winter temperatures in concert with summer droughts will reduce St. John’s wort abundance in England.^[1] Temperature stress can also affect secondary metabolites and other compounds that are responsible for the majority of their medicinal activity. In the case of St. John’s wort, known for antidepressant effects, when grown under artificially high temperatures the plants produced higher levels of secondary metabolites. The researchers viewed this as a potential positive development.^[2]

References

^[1] Laurel R. Fox et al., “Direct and Indirect Effects of Climate Change on St John’s Wort, Hypericum Perforatum L. (Hypericaceae),” Oecologia 120, no. 1 (July 1, 1999): 113–22, https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050839.

^[2] Zobayed, S. M. A., F. Afreen, and T. Kozai. “Temperature Stress Can Alter the Photosynthetic Efficiency and Secondary Metabolite Concentrations in St. John’s Wort.” Plant Physiology and Biochemistry: PPB 43, no. 10–11 (November 2005): 977–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2005.07.013.

Star anise is a potent licorice-tasting spice used in broths, soups, sweets, liqueurs and spirits. Most is grown in China, India and elsewhere in Asia. Agroforestry businesses, including production of star anise, is increasingly utilized in Bac Kan province of Vietnam to diversify production systems to adapt to climate change.^[1]

References

^[1] Duncan Macqueen, “Star spice in Vietnam’s forests,” https://www.iied.org/star-spice-vietnams-forests.

Strawberries are popular in desserts and rich in vitamins and antioxidants. China is the world’s top strawberry producer, followed by Mexico, which exports the majority of its crop to the US. The US is also a major producer; California, Florida and Oregon are the top three strawberry-producing states.^[1]

Excessive heat can lead to smaller size strawberries.^[2] Drought can lead to rot and reduce berry size and yield, while increased flooding in Florida has led to excess water giving strawberries having a more “watery” flavor.^[3] Studies have projected that Florida strawberry growers could face a 17% decline in early season yields by 2025.^[4]

References

^[1] Feng Wu, Zhengfei Guan, and Alicia Whidden, “FE971: An Overview of the US and Mexico Strawberry Industries,” Ask IFAS – Powered by EDIS, June 21, 2025, https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE971.

^[2] Christopher Menzel, “Higher Temperatures Decrease Fruit Size in Strawberry Growing in the Subtropics,” Horticulturae 7, no. 2 (February 2021): 34, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7020034.

^[3] Lois Wright Morton et al., “Climate, Weather and Strawberries,” Sociology Technical Report 1047, Iowa State University, 2017. https://isuaamncus122stg.blob.core.windows.net/shop/SOC1047.pdf.

^[4] Environmental Defense Fund, “New Report Shows Climate Change Will Impact Strawberry Production in Florida | EDF,” May 15, 2023, https://blogs.edf.org/growingreturns/2023/05/15/florida-strawberry/.

About one-fifth of the world’s sugar comes from sugar beet, a root crop grown in moderate climates.^[1] Russia, the European Union, and the US are the top three producers globally.^[2] In the US, sugar beet is grown in the Great Lakes region, Upper Midwest, Great Plains and Far West.^[3]

Rising temperatures and low water conditions associated with climate change can stress sugar beet plants, shorten the growing season, and reduce the amount of sugar that the plants produce.^[4,5] Some growers are adapting by planting earlier to extend the growing season.^[6,7] In addition, warmer summers are creating conditions that favor insect pests and fungal diseases that threaten sugar beets.^[8]

References

^[1] “Geography of Sugar – The Canadian Sugar Institute,” accessed July 21, 2025, https://sugar.ca/sugar-basics/geography-of-sugar.

^[2] “Top Countries for Sugar Beet Production – Source FAO,” NationMaster, accessed July 22, 2025, https://www.nationmaster.com/nmx/ranking/sugar-beet-production.

^[3] “Sugar and Sweeteners – Background | Economic Research Service,” accessed July 22, 2025, https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/sugar-and-sweeteners/background.

^[4] “Climate Change Impacts Sugar Production: Association Head – Latest News,” Hürriyet Daily News, March 7, 2025, https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/climate-change-impacts-sugar-production-association-head-206636.

^[5] Sugar Beet: Impact of Climate Change, Pests and Disease on Yields – HSAT, n.d., accessed July 22, 2025, https://hsat.space, https://hsat.space/sugar-beet-impact-of-climate-change-pests-and-disease-on-yields/.

^[6] “Adapting Sugar Beet Cultivation to Climate Change,” October 1, 2024, https://www.suedzucker.com/adapting-sugar-beet-cultivation-to-climate-change/.

^[7] Zivko Curcic et al., “Effect of Sugar Beet Genotype, Planting and Harvesting Dates and Their Interaction on Sugar Yield,” Frontiers in Plant Science 9 (July 2018): 1041, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01041.

^[8] “Adapting Sugar Beet Cultivation to Climate Change.”

About 80% of the world’s sugar is produced from sugarcane, a tropical grass grown near the equator.^[1] Brazil, India and Thailand are the largest producers globally. The US imports most of its raw cane sugar from Central America, South America, Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.^[2] In addition to sugar, sugarcane is used to make molasses and rum.

High temperatures and water stress during critical growth phases can diminish sugarcane yields. Researchers in India projected that a temperature increase of 2 degrees Celsius would lead to a 3% loss of sugarcane crops.^[3] In recent years, abnormally high temperatures in Asia have taken a toll on sugar production, and global sugar prices have risen as a result.^[4]

References

^[1] “Geography of Sugar – The Canadian Sugar Institute,” accessed July 21, 2025, https://sugar.ca/sugar-basics/geography-of-sugar.

^[2] “The U.S. Sugar Industry,” Sweetener Users Association, n.d., accessed July 22, 2025, https://sweetenerusers.org/the-u-s-sugar-industry/.

^[3] V. Guhan et al., “Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Water Requirement and Yield of Sugarcane over Different Agro-Climatic Zones of Tamil Nadu,” Scientific Reports 14, no. 1 (2024): 8239, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58771-8.

^[4] Amudalat Ajasa, “Why Extreme Weather Is Making Sugar More Expensive around the Globe,” The Washington Post, December 7, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2023/12/07/elnino-sugar-extreme-weather/.

Swordfish is a popular, meaty seafood rich in protein and other nutrients. This migratory species lives in oceans worldwide and can inhabit waters of varying temperatures.^[1]

Warming oceans associated with climate change are altering swordfish habitats globally. One study projected a global decrease in swordfish of up to 22% by the end of the 21st century.^[2] Another study forecasted a slight decline in swordfish off the coast of Chile by 2065, with a greater abundance of swordfish near the coast.^[3]

In addition, the feeding patterns of swordfish enable them to eat large prey that has bioaccumulated the neurotoxin methylmercury. This accumulation is exacerbated by warming oceans because fish use more energy to swim in warmer water, which requires them to take in more calories.^[4]

References

^[1] “Swordfish,” Discover Fishes, accessed July 9, 2025, https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/swordfish/.

^[2] Maite Erauskin-Extramiana et al., “Are Shifts in Species Distribution Triggered by Climate Change? A Swordfish Case Study,” Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, Oceanic biodiversity under climate change: shifts in natural and human systems, 175 (May 1, 2020): 104666, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2019.104666.

^[3] Claudio Silva et al., “Forecasts of Swordfish (Xiphias Gladius) and Common Sardine (Strangomera Bentincki) off Chile under the A2 IPCC Climate Change Scenario,” Progress in Oceanography 134 (May 1, 2015): 343–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.03.004.

^[4] “Climate Change Likely to Increase Human Exposure to Toxic Methylmercury,” accessed July 9, 2025, https://seas.harvard.edu/news/2019/08/climate-change-likely-increase-human-exposure-toxic-methylmercury.

Tea is a $10 billion industry and the second most popular drink in the world. Typed according to how it’s processed – black, oolong, Masala, pu’erh, and green – tea is, like coffee, changing. Shifts in temperature, rainfall, and season length can affect not only yields but also the hundreds of unique chemicals in teas that determine their potential health benefits and flavors.^[1,2]

References

^[1] J. M. A. Duncan et al., “Observing Climate Impacts on Tea Yield in Assam, India,” Applied Geography 77 (December 2016), 64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.10.004

^[2] Anna Nowogrodzki, “How Climate Change Might Affect Tea,” Nature 566 (February 6, 2019): S10–11, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-00399-0.

In 2018, distillers in Mexico produced over 82 million gal. (309 million L) of tequila.^[1] But climate change is threatening blue agave. In 2016, rapid snowfall and cold temperatures killed millions of plants, resulting in nearly a seven-fold increase in the price of agave.^[2]

References

^[1] “Mexico’s Tequila Production, 2018, Statista,” Release date January 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/311696/mexico-s-tequila-production/; “Mexico’s Export Amount of Tequila by Country, 2018, Statista,” Release date October 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/311749/mexico-s-export-quantity-of-tequila-by-country/.

^[2] R. Madrigal-Lugo, “Mexican Scientists Adapt Agave Production in Response to Climate Change,” May 17, 2018, http://eltecolote.org/content/en/features/mexican-scientists-adapt-agave-production-in-response-to-climate-change/.

Tomatoes are among the most widely consumed vegetable crops globally and are high in vitamin C and lycopene. Fresh tomatoes are often eaten in salads, while processed tomatoes are used in products like spaghetti sauce, tomato juice, and ketchup.

China is the world’s largest tomato producer, followed by the United States and India.^[1] The US produces about 40% of the fresh tomatoes it consumes, while the rest are imported from Mexico and Canada. Processed tomatoes consumed in the US are grown primarily in California.^[2] Fresh tomatoes are often grown in greenhouses, whereas processing tomatoes are grown in fields, where they are more susceptible to climate-related risks.

Climate change poses significant challenges to tomato production, as rising temperatures and drought can reduce plant fertility and yields, while increased rainfall and humidity can increase the spread of plant disease.^[3] Scientific models have projected a 6% decrease in processing tomato production by the year 2050, with production shifting to cooler regions in northern parts of California and China.^[4]

References

^[1] “Tomato Production by Country 2025,” worldpopulationreview.com, accessed May 19, 2025, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/tomato-production-by-country.

^[2] “FE1027/FE1027: The US Tomato Industry: An Overview of Production and Trade,” Ask IFAS – Powered by EDIS, accessed May 19, 2025, https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FE1027.

^[3] Muhammad Hubab et al., “Climate Change-Driven Shifts in the Global Distribution of Tomato and Potato Crops and Their Associated Bacterial Pathogens,” Frontiers in Microbiology 16 (January 30, 2025): 1520104, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1520104.

^[4] Francesco Suman, “Climate Change to Hit Italian Tomato Production,” Nature Italy, June 17, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1038/d43978-022-00079-0.

Truffle, a highly valued culinary delicacy, is the underground fruiting body of fungi related to mushrooms. It is primarily associated with French and Italian cuisine, used in sauces, patés, oils and garnishes.^[1]

Wild truffles grow at the base of oak trees, with which they have a symbiotic relationship—the tree provides energy, and the truffle helps the tree access nutrients and water in the soil.^[2] Found in Mediterranean Europe, western North America, and Australia, they have traditionally been foraged with the help of pigs or dogs.^[3]

As wild truffle habitats have declined, some farmers have taken on the risky challenge of cultivating truffles. France grows 95% of cultivated truffles,^[2] and US farmers are experimenting with growing them.^[4]

Variability in rainfall a poses a risk to truffle production: increased rainfall in the autumn inhibits the truffle growth of truffles in the Mediterranean^[5], while drier summers have negatively affected truffle harvest in Spain.^[6] However, rising temperatures in Central Europe may make this region more suitable for cultivating truffles.^[7]

References

^[1] “What Are Truffles Used For? | Elevate Your Kitchen | TRUFF,” TRUFF | Truffle Hot Sauce | Luxury Condiments, accessed April 30, 2025, https://www.truff.com/blogs/the-sauce/what-are-truffles-used-for.

^[2] “How Truffles Are Grown And What Makes Them So Special,” accessed April 30, 2025, https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/how-truffles-are-grown.

^[3] “Truffles: The Most Expensive Food in the World – CBS News,” June 4, 2012, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/truffles-the-most-expensive-food-in-the-world/.

^[4] “Americans Are Farming Truffles and Finding Success. Here’s How,” PBS News, April 4, 2025, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/americans-are-farming-truffles-and-finding-success-heres-how.

^[5] Ulf Büntgen et al., “Black Truffle Winter Production Depends on Mediterranean Summer Precipitation,” Environmental Research Letters 14, no. 7 (July 2019): 074004, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab1880.

^[6] Sergi Garcia-Barreda et al., “Variability and Trends of Black Truffle Production in Spain (1970-2017): Linkages to Climate, Host Growth, and Human Factors,” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 287 (June 15, 2020): 107951, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2020.107951.

^[7] Tomáš Čejka et al., “Predicted Climate Change Will Increase the Truffle Cultivation Potential in Central Europe,” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (December 4, 2020): 21281, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76177-0.

Albacore tuna are a migratory species present in all of the world’s oceans.^[1] Changes in ocean temperature, currents, and the availability of prey are forcing albacore to change their migration patterns and distributions. As a result, fisheries in warmer zones may see fewer albacore as their presence increases toward the poles.^[2,3] In addition, rising ocean temperatures may lead to a 15% decrease in the overall body size of albacore tuna by 2050.^[4]

References

^[1] N Goikoetxea et al., “Climate Change Effects on Albacore Tuna, A Review,” International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, Collect. Vol. Sci. Pap. 81(3), 2024, https://www.iccat.int/Documents/CVSP/CV081_2024/n_3/CV08103077.pdf.

^[2] NOAA Fisheries, “West Coast Research Alliance Projects Climate Effects, Management Options for Key Species | NOAA Fisheries,” NOAA, April 26, 2023, West Coast, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/news/west-coast-research-alliance-projects-climate-effects-management-options-key-species.

^[3] Alberto Monllor-Hurtado, Maria Grazia Pennino, and José Luis Sanchez-Lizaso, “Shift in Tuna Catches Due to Ocean Warming,” PLOS ONE 12, no. 6 (June 7, 2017): e0178196, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178196.

^[4] Parque Tecnológico de Bizkaia, “Tuna Species Productivity and Size May Decrease Due to Climate Change,” February 28, 2023, https://phys.org/news/2023-02-tuna-species-productivity-size-decrease.html.

The Atlantic bluefin tuna is faltering with increasing surface temperatures and the suitability of its habitat is also declining with climate change.^[1]

References

^[1] “Climate Change as Seen Through Atlantic Bluefin Tuna – Shark Research and Conservation Program (SRC) | University of Miami,” accessed March 17, 2021, https://sharkresearch.rsmas.miami.edu/climate-change-as-seen-through-atlantic-bluefin-tuna/.

Turmeric is a key ingredient of Indian curry and is used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for its anti-inflammatory properties.^[1] A relative of ginger, turmeric is derived from a native Asian plant. It is adapted to humid tropical and subtropical climates, where it grows in warm, well-drained soils.^[2] India is the world’s largest producer, followed by China and other southeast Asian countries; the US is a major importer of turmeric.^[3]

Erratic monsoon patterns associated with climate change may lead to water shortages or flooding that could impair turmeric production, which depends on consistent timing and levels of monsoon rains.^[4] One analysis projected a decline in suitable land area for turmeric production by 2050 due to temperature fluctuations and anticipated future increases in rainfall.^[5]

Some turmeric farmers are combating the threat of climate change with adaptive growing strategies, such as adjusting sowing and harvesting time or using water management techniques.^[6]

References

^[1] “Turmeric Benefits,” June 20, 2024, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/turmeric-benefits.

^[2] “Turmeric Market Summary,” Blue Book, accessed April 22 2025, https://www.bluebookservices.com/kyc/turmeric/.

^[3] “Turmeric – University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point,” accessed April 22, 2025, https://www.uwsp.edu/sbcb/turmeric/.

^[4] Majestic Spice, “How Climate Change Is Reshaping the Spice Industry,” Majestic Spice, April 30, 2024, https://www.majesticspice.com/how-climate-change-is-reshaping-the-spice-industry/.

^[5] M. Banu et al., “Land Suitability Analysis for Turmeric Crop for Humid Tropical Kerala, India, under Current and Future Climate Scenarios Using Advanced Geospatial Techniques,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 104, no. 7 (2024): 4176–88, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.13299.

^[6] R. Amulya, M. Deepa Devi, and N. Gopimohan Singh, “Climate Change Effect & Farmers Adaptation Strategies in Turmeric Cultivation in Thoubal District of Manipur,” International Journal of Agriculture Extension and Social Development 7, no. 7 (2024): 110–14, https://doi.org/10.33545/26180723.2024.v7.i7b.773<.

Madagascar, the source of most natural vanilla, has experienced increasing temperatures, heat waves, drought, floods, and cyclones. In 2017, Cyclone Enawo, hit Madagascar and destroyed almost 30% of the annual global supply, driving up prices by nearly 350%.^[1]

References

^[1] Chase Purdy, “A Cyclone in Madagascar Has Made Vanilla Four Times More Expensive,” Quartz, accessed August 21, 2019, https://qz.com/1059470/why-is-vanilla-so-expensive-look-to-weather-in-madagascar/.

Successful walnut yields depend on adequate winter chill periods, which scientists forecast will decrease with climate change in areas where the crop is currently grown.^[3] Drought is also a threat to walnut production, and agriculture experts in California project at 15% decline in walnut yields in the region.^[4] Navel orangeworm, a major pest of tree nuts in California, is expected to be able to infect more trees as climate conditions change, which will further threaten walnut yields.^[5]

Breeding programs are underway to develop walnut varieties that are better adapted to warmer temperatures and extreme weather events.^[6].

References

^[1] AWIA, “Top Walnut Producing Countries Worldwide,” Australian Walnut Industry Association (blog), February 18, 2019, https://www.walnut.net.au/top-walnut-producing-countries-worldwide/.

^[2] Hilary Rance, “How Are Walnuts Grown?,” California Grown, March 16, 2023, https://californiagrown.org/blog/how-walnuts-are-grown/.

^[3] Eike Luedeling et al., “Climate Change Affects Winter Chill for Temperate Fruit and Nut Trees,” PLOS ONE 6, no. 5 (May 24, 2011): e20155, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020155.

[4] Sebastian Ramírez, “California’s Extreme Weather and Walnuts,” FreshFruitPortal.Com (blog), November 28, 2023, https://www.freshfruitportal.com/news/2023/11/28/californias-extreme-weather-and-walnuts/.

^[5] Tapan B. Pathak, Mahesh L. Maskey, and Jhalendra P. Rijal, “Impact of Climate Change on Navel Orangeworm, a Major Pest of Tree Nuts in California,” Science of The Total Environment 755 (February 10, 2021): 142657, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142657.

^[6] “Walnut Trees May Not Be Able to Withstand Climate Change,” EurekAlert!, accessed June 13, 2025, https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/805403.

Although watermelon thrives in warm weather, the crop is susceptible to heat stress, which can cause flower drop and reduce yields. Watermelon growth depends upon ample water supplies, so drought can impair production, but excessive rainfall can lead to disease. A 2019 drought led to a 20% decrease in watermelon production in parts of the US.^[3]

References

^[1] USDA Economic Research Service. “Most U.S. Watermelon Is Produced in the South, with Florida Leading Output in 2021 | Economic Research Service,” August 3. 2022, https://ers.usda.gov/data-products/charts-of-note/chart-detail?chartId=104374.

^[2] Jaclyn Kramer, “U.S. Watermelon Imports Rise to Meet Growing Demand | Economic Research Service,” July 6,2020, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/charts-of-note/chart-detail?chartId=98750.

^[3] Ess Team, “How Climate Change Affects Watermelon Farming & Leading Mitigation Companies,” EssFeed (blog), February 10, 2025, https://essfeed.com/how-climate-change-affects-watermelon-farming-leading-mitigation-companies/.

Wheat is one of the most important food crops in the world and is eaten in nearly every country.^[1] China, India and Russia are the world’s largest wheat producers, followed by the US.^[2] Wheat grown in the US central plains is responsible for about 10% of global wheat production.^[3]

Researchers predict global wheat production will fall by 6% for every 1.8˚F (1˚C) temperature increase.^[4] Excessive heat during the growing season can reduce plant productivity and growth, while drought can reduce quality and also diminish yields.^[5] Research simulating future heat and drought scenarios suggest that the threat to wheat yields in both China and the US could be higher than many anticipate.^[6]

Scientists are breeding new heat-tolerant and drought-resistant varieties of wheat to help maintain yields,^[5,7] but some studies suggest that climate change may outpace the yield improvements of these new varieties.^[7]

References

^[1] Joseph M. Awika, “Major Cereal Grains Production and Use around the World,” in Advances in Cereal Science: Implications to Food Processing and Health Promotion, vol. 1089, ACS Symposium Series 1089 (American Chemical Society, 2011), 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2011-1089.ch001.

^[2] “Wheat Production by Country 2025,” accessed April 13, 2025, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/wheat-production-by-country.

^[3] Tianyi Zhang et al., “Climate Change May Outpace Current Wheat Breeding Yield Improvements in North America,” Nature Communications 13, no. 1 (September 30, 2022): 5591, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33265-1.

^[4] S. Asseng et al., “Rising Temperatures Reduce Global Wheat Production,” Nature Climate Change 5, no. 2 (February 2015): 143–47, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2470.

^[5] OAR US EPA, “Climate Change Connections: Kansas (Wheat),” Overviews and Factsheets, September 17, 2024, https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-connections-kansas-wheat.

^[6] Erin Coughlan de Perez et al., “Potential for Surprising Heat and Drought Events in Wheat-Producing Regions of USA and China,” Npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 6, no. 1 (June 2, 2023): 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-023-00361-y.

^[7] Zhang, “Climate Change May Outpace Wheat Breeding Progress in North America.” Earth & Environment, September 30, 2022. https://communities.springernature.com/posts/climate-change-may-outpace-wheat-breeding-progress-in-north-america.

References

^[1] Ramón Mira de Orduña, “Climate Change Associated Effects on Grape and Wine Quality and Production,” Food Research International, Climate Change and Food Science, 43, no. 7 (August 1, 2010): 1851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2010.05.001.

^[2] Hannah et al., “Climate Change, Wine, and Conservation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 17 (April 23, 2013): 6907, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210127110.

Under conditions of both increased temperature and increased CO2, the development and severity of a disease called powdery mildew increased.^[1]

References

^[1] Pugliese, M., Liu, J., Titone, P., Garibaldi, A., and Gullino, M. L. (2012). Effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on interactions of zucchini and powdery mildew. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 51(3), 480-87. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286063014_Effects_of_elevated_CO2_and_temperature_on_interactions_of_zucchini_and_powdery_mildew.